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OF THE

JOURNAL

|AST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY
AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

VOL. XXV No. 2 (III)

SOCIETY

IY1US. COMP. ZOQL

. . HtT-MNY

June 1965

^ 1 ~ ° ife

; HARVARD

CONTENTS UNIVERSITY!

Page

The Phytoplankton of Some Kenya Waters, by E. M. Lind 76

Periodic Flowering of Some ACANTHACEAE on Mt. Elgon,

by E. M. Tweedie 92

Notes on the Birds of Kakamega Forest, by J. R. M. Tennent 95

Observations on Verreaux’s Eagle Owl Bubo lacteus (Temminck) in Kenya,

by L. H. Brown 101

The Paradise Whydah and the Broad-tailed Paradise Whydah,

•/ • by C. J. Tweedy 108

Hood-spreading by the Mambas of the African Genus Dendroaspis Schlegel,

by Charles R. S. Pitman 110

Notes on Two East African Venomous Snake Populations — Echis carinatus
pyramidum (Geoffroy), Egyptian Saw-scaled Viper and Vipera
hindii Boulenger, Montane Viper,

by C. J. P. Ionides & Charles R. S. Pitman 116

Observations on Gunther’s Garter or Coral Snake,

Elapsoidea sundevalii quntheri Loveridge,

by James Ashe 122

A Trip to A1 Aber, Quad State, Hadramaut, Eastern Aden Protectorate,

by C. J. P. Ionides & C. Orme-Smith 125

A Scincid Reptile Feeding Primarily on Marine Crustacea,
with a Note on its Parasites,

by A. G. Canaris & D. G. Murphy 129

New Lepidoptera from East Africa, by R. H. Carcasson 131

Nature Notes: A Dormouse Living in a Beehive, A. Duff-Mackay

First Record of Snake from Uganda, by J. Ashe 162

A Count of Crested Cranes, by V. E. M. Burke 162

Some Additional Field Notes on Vipera hindii

by C. R. S. Pitman 163

Book Review 164

(Published 30/9/65)

Price Shs. 20/-

©>

EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

Notice to Contributors

Contributions. The Committee is pleased to consider contributions
on natural history for publication in the Journal on the understanding
that these are not also being offered, wholly or partially, to any
other Journal. They should be addressed to the Secretary, P.O. Box
4486, Nairobi.

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As this Journal is printed by the photo lithographic process,
alterations and additions to manuscripts which have reached the proof
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Illustrations. These should be in a form suitable for reproduc¬
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better reproduction is achieved from prints slightly darker in tone
than normal.

Nomenclature. Where a recent stahdard work for the area is
available (e.g. Praed and Grant for birds) the names given there
(both English and scientific) should be used. Initial capitals
should be used for specific English names, e.gc Pied Wagtail and small
initial letters for group names, e.g. wagtails. Scientific names
must be underlined. Where an English name is used, it is normally
advisable, on first mention, to add the scientific name to avoid
misunderstanding .

References. These are usually abbreviated in the text and listed
more fully in alphabetical order of authors at the end of the article.
For example, in the text a book reference might be (Pinhey 1956: p.20) .
At the bottom of the contribution: Jackson, F.J., 1938. Birds of Kenya
and Uganda. Pinhey, E.C.Go, 1956. The Emperor Moths of Eastern Africa.
J.EoAfr.Nat.Hist.Soc. XXIII N o. 1. (98). With short articles it may
not be worth making a list of references at the end, but the whole
reference in the most abbreviated comprehensible form should then be
inserted in the text.

Reprints. Provided that they order at the time of submitting
their articles, authors may have up to 25 reprints free (other than
Nature Notes). Additional copies can be supplied on payment.

A list of available back numbers of the Journal and reprints can
be obtained from the Librarian, National Museum, P.O. Box 658, Nairobi.

JOURNAL

OF THE EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AND NATIONAL MUSEUM

VOL. XXV No. 2 (III) June 1965

CONTENTS

Page

The Phytoplankton of Some Kenya Waters, by E. M. Lind 76

Periodic Flowering of Some ACANTHACEAE on Mt. Elgon,

by E. M. Tweedie 92

Notes on the Birds of Kakamega Forest, by J. R. M. Tennent 95

Observations on Verreaux’s Eagle Owl Bubo lacteus (Temminck) in Kenya,

by L. H. Brown 101

The Paradise Whydah and the Broad-tailed Paradise Whydah,

by C. J. Tweedy 108

Hood-spreading by the Mambas of the African Genus Dendroaspis Schlegel,

by Charles R. S. Pitman 110

Notes on Two East African Venomous Snake Populations — Echis carinatus
pyramidum (Geoffroy), Egyptian Saw-scaled Viper and Vipera
hindii Boulenger, Montane Viper,

by C. J. P. Ionides & Charles R. S. Pitman 116

Observations on Gunther’s Garter or Coral Snake,

Elapsoidea sundevalii quntheri Loveridge,

by James Ashe 122

A Trip to A1 Aber, Quati State, Hadramaut, Eastern Aden Protectorate,

by C. J. P. Ionides & C. Orme-Smith 125

A Scincid Reptile Feeding Primarily on Marine Crustacea,
with a Note on its Parasites,

by A. G. Canaris & D. G. Murphy 129

New Lepidoptera from East Africa, by R. H. Carcasson 131

Nature Notes: A Dormouse Living in a Beehive, A. Duff-Mackay

First Record of Snake from Uganda, by J. Ashe 162

A Count of Crested Cranes, by V. E. M. Burke 162

Some Additional Field Notes on Vipera hindii

by C. R. S. Pitman 163

Book Review 164

(Published 30/9/65)

Price Shs. 20/-

EAST AFRICA NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

PRESIDENT;

Dr. Mo J0 Coe.

VICE-PRESIDENT :

Drc AoDoQo Agnew.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE:

JoAo Wood, Esq.

LoHo Brown, Esq.

MoEoWo North, Esq0
RoHo Carcasson, Esq.

Miss. EoJo Blencowe.

Miss. J0Ro Ossento
Mrs. Do Fleming.

Bo Parsons, Esq0
Jo Smart, Esq.

HONo EDITOR;

Dr. P0 Jo Greenway.

HONo TREASURER:

AoGoTo Carter, Esqc
SECRETARY
Mrs. Fo Ng’wenOo

All correspondence in connection with this Journal should be
addressed to: The Secretary, East Africa Natural History Society,
PoOo Box 4486, Nairobi, Kenya.

J .E .Af r. Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

THE PHYTOPLANKTON OF SOME KENYA WATERS

E.M. LIND

An unexpected temporary appointment in the Botany Department of
University College, Nairobi, provided the opportunity to make a survey
of the phytoplankton of some Kenya inland waters. Attention has
previously been paid to some of the larger lakes, particularly those
in the Rift Valley, but little information is available about the
smaller lakes and reservoirs. The account which follows is an attempt
to present the results of the survey in a form which can be understood
by those who have had no specialist training in botany.

The term plankton is used to describe the minute free-floating
organisms which are present in any body of fresh or sea-water and
which form the main food of fish. The phytoplankton consists of algae,
which are plants, and the zooplankton of animals. The algae contain
chlorophyll and are able to manufacture sugars from carbon dioxide and
the water in which they live. They are eaten direct by some kinds of
fish and they also provide the food of small water animals which are
the food of other fish. When phytoplankton is present in quantity, it
colours the water green or brown but if only a small quantity is pres¬
ent the algae can only be seen in a concentrated sample. This may be
obtained either by sieving the water through a fine silk net or by
allowing the organisms to sediment out after killing them with iodine.
The organisms belong to a wide variety of algal classes, but for the
purposes of this account it will be sufficient to mention the following
major groups which include those types occurring most commonly in Kenya
fresh-waters .

CHLOROPHYTA (Green Algae)

Coccoid types: Immotile unicellular green algae, usually grouped

together into colonies of various forms. They are often in a state
of active asexual reproduction resulting in colonies of different
sizes (Fig. 1).

Motile colonial types: In these, a larger or smaller number of green
cells, each with two flagellae, are grouped together to make a
usually spherical motile colony (Fig. 2 ) .

Desmids : In most desmids the cell consists of two semi-cells joined

by an isthmus. The cell wall is often ornamented in various ways
or bears spines, and many of the desmids are very beautiful objects
under the microscope. In some genera the individual cells are
joined together by mucilage to form ’chain desmids’ (Figs. 3, 4, 5a
and b) .

CHRYSOPHYTA (Yellow-green or yellow-brown algae)

Diatoms : Although diatoms contain chlorophyll they are yellow-brown

in colour. Each diatom consists of a single cell, often boat
shaped or needle-like with a wall composed partly of silica and

The Phytoplankton of some Kenya Waters

bearing very delicate markings (Fig. 6). Vast quantities of these
in some earlier Kenya lakes have resulted in the accumulation of
deposits made up of their silica walls and known as diatomite. In
one common diatom the cells are joined together by their ends to
form a filament Melos ira (See photo).

Tribonema : A filamentous alga, yellow-green in colour. The cells

have thin cellulose walls made of two overlapping halves so that
the broken end of the filament shows an H shaped piece of wall
where the two halves have come apart. This alga does not store
starch and therefore does not stain blue with iodine. (Fig. 7).

Dinobryon : A curious alga in which the tiny, flagellated, yellow-

brown cells are contained within flask-shaped structures open at
one end and pointed at the other. These capsules are arranged in
a tree-like manner to form a branched structure. Very often
broken pieces of the ’tree' are found after the living cells have
escaped ( Fig . 8) .

Botryococcus : The cells lie close together within a brownish or

orange-coloured envelope forming small irregular masses. The cells
secrete oil which obscures the detailed structure (Fig. 9).

PYRROPHYTA (Golden-brown algae)

Peridium and Ceratium: These unicellular forms are characterised by
the presence of a deep transverse groove or furrow and a wall
ornamented by a number of plates. Ceratium has conspicuous horns.
Both are actively motile by means of two flagellae (Figs. 9, 10) .

CYANOPHYTA or MYXOPHYCEAE (Blue-green algae)

There are very many algae belonging to this group, they show a
great variety of form and may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous;
they are often enclosed in a mucilage sheath. Some are so minute
that they pass through the finest meshes of a plankton net and yet
they colour the water deep green. Algae of this group are specially
common in alkaline lakes (See photo).

EUGLENOPHYTA

Euglena and Phacus: Unicellular motile organisms, bright green in
colour and storing a carbohydrate (paramylum) which does not
respond to the iodine test. The cells are naked, and while Phacus
has a rigid periplast, Euglena is able to change its shape. They
are especially characteristic of waters of hiqh orqanic content
(Figs. 11, 12).

Phytoplankton and water

The relative proportions of algae of these groups occurring in any
body of water will depend on the chemical composition of the water.
Some are characteristic of soft waters and others of hard while highly
saline lakes or lakes rich in organic matter have a very distinctive
plankton. In temperate countries where these matters have been the
subject of close study, there is also a change in the composition of
the plankton throughout the year and this has been shown to be

Vo 1 .XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

S- flf - £

J.E.Af r. Nat .Hist .Soc .

associated with climatic changes which bring about first a stagnation
and. then a mixing of the waters resulting in a redistribution of nutri¬
tive material which has collected on the surface of the lake muds.

Though waters in different districts of Kenya show plankton
populations related to their environment, the range of temperature in
any one place is insufficient to cause the stagnation and mixing seen
in places with a big difference between winter and summer temperatures.

The biggest climatic change to which Kenya waters are exposed is due
to rainfall which in the parts of the country with which we are con¬
cerned occurs in two main periods between March and June and between
October and December. In 1961-62 all lakes were subject to heavy
flooding and in 1963-64 their waters were well above normal level.

It was thought that a survey of the plankton of some Kenya waters
might prove of interest from two points of view. Firstly it is
possible to collect from lakes and dams in a wide variety of ecological
habitats ranging from mountain tarns at 10, OCX) ft. to Rift Valley
saline lakes at 2,000 ft. Secondly, as there are no major climatic
fluctuations which would bring about regular changes, other than
diurnal, in the temperature of the water, a study of the periodicity
of the algae might prove rewarding.

moS. COMP. ZOOL

The investigation therefore falls into two parts:-

1. A study at monthly intervals of the phytoplankton of two
reservoirs .

2. A comparison of plankton from lakes of different ecological
types .

Methods : Plankton was collected by drawing a net of fine bolting

silk (180 meshes to an inch) through the surface water as near as
possible to mid-day. No attempt at quantitive estimation was made;
counts were made under the microscope of approximately 1,000 individ¬
uals and the proportion of the major species expressed as a percentage
of the whole.

Wherever possible data were obtained of pH, conductivity (an
indication of total dissolved salts) total alkalinity (carbonates and
bicarbonates) and major metallic ions.

L! CHARY

»— •• •- — ) .i rt %

HARVARD

UNIVERSE

Phytoplankton periodicity in two Kenya Reservoirs

The two waters chosen were Sasamua and Ruiru Reservoirs which
form the main water supply for Nairobi. Sasumua , constructed in 1956
is 650 acres in extent and about 90 ft. deep and has a capacity of
2,000 million gallons. It lies at the foot of the Aberdares at 8,140
ft. in a region of bamboo Arundinaria alpina K. Schum and Cedar,
Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl. forest. Until June 1964, its
drainage was from two rivers, the Chania and the Sasumua. The former
has a catchment area mainly on mountain slopes in the forest around
10,000 ft. while the Sasumua catchment is mainly on more level grazed
or cultivated land outside the forest reserve. In June, 1964 a third
river, the Kiburu , was diverted into the dam through a 33 inch pipe
and it now provides 50% of the inflow. The dam wall is to be raised
26 ft. to contain this extra supply. The mean monthly maximum temper¬
ature lies between 17 and 25 C° and there is said to be no thermal
stratification .

The Phytoplankton of some Kenya Waters

Ruiru Reservoir , constructed in 1949 is much smaller, only 100
acreas in extent, and has a capacity of 656 million gallons. It is
situated at 6,450 ft. in an area of Kikuyu reserve and receives its
water from the Ruiru and Bathi Rivers flowing mainly through cultivated
or grazing land. Ruiru dam is about 60 ft. deep and is said to show
no thermal stratification. The mean maximum monthly temperature lies
between 21 and 27 C°

The Phytoplankton

The phytoplankton of the two dams was somewhat similar and con¬
sisted mainly of Dinof lagellates , coccoid and colonial Chlorophyta,
Dinobryon and, at certain .times desmids . Diatoms and Cyanophyta were
never conspicuous. The main differences were the abundance of
Dinobryon in Ruiru while in Sasumua it was hardly significant, and
the abundance of Ceratium at times in Sasumua though scarce in Ruiru.

The periodicity of the various plankton types throughout the
period October 1963 to December 1963 is shown in Diagrams 1 & 2 and
it will be seen that it was not the same in the two reservoirs. For
example, Peridinium in Ruiru reached its maxima in May and June and
in November following heavy rains, while in Sasumua its two maxima
were at periods of low rainfall. Ceratium behaves in the opposite
manner.

Chlorophyta seem to favour low rainfall but the situation at
Ruiru was complicated by a huge maximum in October of the Coccoid and
Colonial algae Kirchneriella and Eudorina which coloured the water
bright green. Next month it had almost gone and was replaced by
Peridinium. This only serves to indicate that a survey of this kind
should really be carried out at weekly intervals as various important
changes can take place in a month and be completely missed.

Desmids were a major feature of the plankton of both dams when
the investigation began and, to a less extent, in November 1964. In
Ruiru they rose to a maximum in April just before the high rainfall
then fell off abruptly with the rain and did not reappear till
November. In Sasumua, after a high start in October, they decreased
till May and remained below 10% till December being at their lowest
at the time of highest rainfall. It was, perhaps, surprising to find
desmids forming 70% of the plankton in water with a pH of 7.3. They
were limited to about ten species.

Dinobryon : This alga was so abundant at most times at Ruiru

that it was impossible to count it at all accurately. Only in January
and August did its numbers fall appreciably . In Sasumua it was
always present but only in April did it reach more than 15%. Dinobryon
was not included in the percentage counts in either reservoir but is
shown separately at the top of the diagram.

Periodicity in relation to Rainfall

Sasumua 1964 1730 mm
Ruiru 1964 1482 mm

The Diagram shows that certain algae behaved differently in the
two waters in relation to rainfall.

Peridinium maximum occurred at high rainfall at Ruiru.

Peridinium maximum occurred at low rainfall at Sasumua.

J .E . Af r .Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vo 1. XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

Ceratium maximum occurred at low rainfall at Ruiru.

Cerat ium maximum occurred at high rainfall at Sasumua.

Desmid maximum was at low rainfall in both dams.

Dinobryon maximum was at high rainfall in both dams.

Chlorophyta maximum was at low rainfall in both except for the
Eudorina maximum as the short rains began in Ruiru.

As plankton algae are known to be sensitive to the amounts of
dissolved nutrients in the water, this was estimated by measuring the
electrical conductivity of the water, a figure which is related to the
concentration of ionised salts in the water. These measurements are
not complete for the year but they are shown at the top of the diagrams.
The pH lay between 6.9 - 7.3 in both reservoirs and the conductivity
between 45 and 250.

It will be seen that conductivity increased with high rainfall in
April in Sasumua, but in Ruiru the reverse was the case, conductivity
being at its lowest at this time. The cause of this difference may
lie in the nature of the drainage system.

At Sasumua, water enters mainly from rivers flowing through
forest and over base-rich volcanic rocks and therefore likely to bring
in extra salts at times of heavy rainfall. The slight rise in conduc¬
tivity shown in July ( a normally dry period) may be due to the entry
of the new supply from the Kiburu River.

In Ruiru, which is much smaller and surrounded by cultivated land,
already probably leached, it may be that the heavy rain runs off the
land without percolating much through the soil and thus dilutes the
water of the reservoir.

The distribution of Phytoplankton in some Kenya Waters

The waters of East Africa can be classified roughly into the
following groups

a. Very large lakes such as Lake Victoria.

b. Large freshwater lakes such as Lake Naivasha.

c. Alkaline lakes.

d. Dams constructed to provide water for drinking or for agricultural

purposes .

e. Tarns and pools some of which dry up in the dry season.

As considerable attention has already been paid to the very large
lakes the present account is concerned only with the groups b to e.

Description of lakes

Lake Naivasha: This is dealt with separately as it in fact consists
of three parts with different ecological conditions.

Smaller Lakes

Lake 01 Bolossat

Situated at the foot of the Aberdares at 7,600 ft. receiving its
drainage from volcanic rocks and soils. A shallow lake surrounded by
grass and sedge swamp with a fringe of Typha and said by the local
people to contain no fish.

The Phytoplankton of some Kenya Waters

Lake Narasha

Situated near Timboroa in the Kenya Highlands at 8,800 ft. No
inlet so probably fed by springs. An outlet flows in wet weather.

Very much overgrown with water-lilies and other water plants and with
a deep fringe of Typha .

Lake Jipe

On the border of Kenya and Tanzania, south of Taveta and fed by
the Lumi River flowing off Kilimanjaro. It is 11 x 3 miles in extent
only about 62 ft. deep and surrounded by swamp. Where the collection
was made there was a deep fringe of Typha .

Lake Chala

A deep crater lake north of the Voi-Moshi road near Taveta. Most
lakes occupying craters are strongly alkaline and green in colour
owing to the quantities of phytoplankton.

Lake Chala is fresh and must have an inflow and outlet though
none is visible. It was not possible to trawl the net owing to the
very steep rocky sides. But plankton precipitated in bottles of
Chala water kindly provided by the Water Development Dept, showed
algae characteristic of fresh rather than saline water. They were
insufficient to be able to estimate a percentage but consisted of
Dinof lagellates and Cyanophyta.

Alkaline Lakes

The larger Alkaline Lakes were not investigated. Several of the
smaller lakes and dams proved to be alkaline.

Dams and Reservoirs

Sasumua and Ruiru reservoirs are described separately in an
earlier part of the paper.

Kikuyu Springs

The original source of Nairobi’s water supply and still used for
that purpose. Situated at about 6,000 ft. at the source of the
Nairobi River west of the main Nakuru road near Kikuyu. The water is
very clear and derives from springs. The dam is fairly shallow and
the bottom is covered with weeds which are kept in check. It is only
6.5 acres in extent.

Tiqoni Dam

Constructed by the army in the 1939-45 war. Situated near Limuru
about 17 miles north of Nairobi and surrounded by grassland, at about
7,400 ft. There is very little weed round the edge.

Sisal Dam

On the estate of the High Level Research Station near Thika at
about 6,000 ft., surrounded by grassland and scrub and with a fringe
of Typha , papyrus and sedges.

Deacon’s Dam

On the Matuu Estate at the foot of Donyo Sabuk, east of Nairobi
at about 5,000 ft. It is the oldest dam in the district and receives
underground drainage from Matuu Hill. It is partly grown over with
water lilies and other plants.

J .E .Af r.Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

Kwale Dam

In the same neighbourhood as Deacon’s but in an area of "black
cotton soil". It was emptied when the dam wall broke in the 1961-62
floods and has now refilled.

Ngomeni and Yambuyu Dams

These two dams differed from all others in being rock catchment
reservoirs in rock of the basement complex. They were at a lower
altitude of about 2,500 ft. in hot, dry bush country. Yambuyu is
near Mwingi on the Nairobi-Garissa road, and Ngomeni is about 250
miles from Nairobi to the west of the Garissa road. Ngomeni proved
to be alkaline.

Lessos

A large dam situated at 7,300 ft., north-east of Lessos. It is
surrounded by grassland and has a deep fringe of Typha , Potomoqeton
and submerged weeds. It is used by a sailing club.

Molo

A dam in agricultural land situated at 8,200 ft., near the
Nakuru Eldoret road, 29 miles from Nakuru.

Tarns and Pools

Gicururu Tarn

A small, shallow tarn at 9,200 ft. near the Aberdare Mountain
Road, surrounded by moorland and with a peaty bottom. This and Lake
Narasha proved to be the only two true desmid lakes.

Distribution of Phytoplankton

In general the waters fell into fairly distinct categories with
regard to the dominant groups in their phytoplankton. Where it was
possible to pay more than one visit to a lake, the plankton was seen
to vary at different times of the year. Some waters therefore appear
more than once in the list with a date to indicate the time of the
visit .

Cyanophyta Lakes

01 Bolossat (12/64), Lodien Bay (Naivasha) , Ngomeni: pH 8.5 to
9.3; conductivity 278 to 1,000; alkalinity (as normality) .002 to
.0085. These waters usually contained diatoms as well.

Tribonema-Melosira Lakes

01 Bolossat 3/64, Naivasha (Crescent) 10/64, Lessos, Kwale,
Yambuyu: oH 7.2 to 8.0; conductivity 110 to 920; alkalinity (as
normality) .001 to .0014. They often contained dinof lagellates and
at some times of year had an abundance of Cyanophyta (Eg. 01 Bolossat).

Dinof laqellate Lakes

Sasumua, Deacon’s Dam, Tigoni Dam: pH 7.0 to 7.3; conductivity
55 to 155; alkalinity (as normality) .005 to .0008. Dinof lagellates
were often associated with Chlorophyta and Desmids.

Dinobryon Lakes

Ruiru, Molo, Sisal Dam: pH 7.2 to 7.5; conductivity 48 to 173;
alkalinity (as normality) .00036 to .0017. These were very similar
to the dinof lagellate lakes and, like them often had many Chlorophyta .

The Phytoplankton of some Kenya Waters

Desmid Lakes

Narasha, Gicururu, Ruiru, Naivasha; pH 6.3 to 7.7; conductivity
30 to 250; alkalinity (as normality) .0022 to .00038. True desmid
lakes were few in number and were characterised by low pH and conduc¬
tivity (Narasha 6.7 and 30, Gicururu 6.3 and 31). Ruiru and Naivasha
were included because at certain times they had a high desmid content
in spite of a pH of 7.7 in the case of Naivasha.

Diatom Lakes

Kikuyu Springs: pH 6.9; conductivity 220; alkalinity as normality
.0009. This was the only water which consistently showed a maximum
of pennate diatoms (i.e. diatoms other than Melosira). It was the
only dam shallow enough- to have the bottom covered with water plants.
It had a silica content of 45 ppm.

Lake Naivasha

This lake deserves fuller treatment as it was visited on several
occasions and something is known of its plankton periodicity. It lies
in the Rift Valley at 6,000 ft. and has an area of 70 sq. miles. It
is fed by rivers from the Aberdares and from the hills above Gilgil
and is one of the few Rift Valley lakes with relatively fresh water.

As it has no surface outlet and is surrounded by alkaline volcanic
deposits, one would expect it to build up a strong salt concentration
due to evaporation, as is the case in some other Rift Valley lakes.
That this does not happen can only be explained by assuming the pres¬
ence of a subterranean outlet.

A thorough study of L. Naivasha was made during the Cambridge
Expedition to the East African Lakes in 1930-31 when the flora and
fauna was related to the chemical properties of the water. The
following observations made in 1963/4 may therefore be of interest in
comparison with the earlier results.

Lake levels

There is evidence from the study by Leakey and others of the
former lake terraces that the water level was at one time much higher
than it is now, perhaps 300 to 400 ft. above its present level, and
that it may then have found an outlet through the Njorowa gorge. In
1906 the riparian boundary was fixed at 6,218 ft. above sea level. By
1917 the level was 6,219 ft., the highest in recent times and after
that it fell considerably. After the 1961 floods it rose to 6,197 ft.
and by 1964 had reached 6202 ft., still not quite up to its 1917
maximum .

There are three distinct parts of the lake to be considered.

Crescent Lake: This lies in a depression inside the curve of Crescent
Island which is the rim of a volcanic crater. It is deeper than the
main lake from which it was almost cut off when the water level was
low. In November 1964 the depth of the main lake was 21.6 ft. and
there was considerable mixing between its water and that of Crescent
Lake. Most of the plankton collections were taken from Crescent Lake
which could easily be reached by a rowing boat.

Main Lake: Refers to the main body of water outside the rim of
Crescent Lake. At the time of this study, there was also a large
flooded area where previous farm land was under water and fencing

J .E . Af r. Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vo 1 .XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

posts and even telegraph poles were sticking out of the water among
dead trees. The original fringe of papyrus was well out into the water
and water lilies occupied the shallow lagoons behind it.

Loydien Bay: This is a small lake in the S.W. corner of the basin
which was formerly cut off from the main lake by a strip of swampy
land. About 1956, a channel was cut through to connect the bay with
the main lake whose level was higher than that of the bay. This
resulted in a deepening of the bay and in the dilution of its water
in respect of certain salts. Since 1961 there has been considerable
mixing of the waters and in 1964, during the present study, the divid¬
ing strip was often under water. Except when the water level is very
high, the phytoplankton of the main lake and Loydien Bay remain quite
distinct .

PHYTOPLANKTON

The chief constituents of the Main Lake were diatoms and Cyano-
phyta though a few Chlorophyta and desmids were always present. There
were two kinds of diatoms:- pennate diatoms which are often needle
shaped and exist usually as single cells, (Fig. 6) and a centric
diatom called Melos ira (See photo). The cells of Melosira are the
shape of a cylindrical box and they are joined by their circular ends
to form a chain. The place where the lid of the box overlaps the
bottom can often be seen as a narrow band and when the lid and the
base come apart, an H-shaped piece is left at the end of the chain.
Desmids showed a surprising maximum in December 1964 when the pH was
7.7. These organisms are usually associated with acid waters.

The plankton of Crescent Lake at most times resembled that of
the Main Lake but had more Cyanophyta and Tribonema . As more collec¬
tions were available from this part of the lake, a distinct periodic¬
ity could be seen. Melosira was just present in February, reaching a
maximum in April which was maintained till October when the numbers
decreased again. Other diatoms were always present but were at their
lowest at the time of the Melosira maximum. In December, as in the
Main Lake, desmids increased tremendously at the expence of other
constituents .

The changes in the plankton of Loydien Bay were very intersting.
The first collection in March 1964 showed very little in a net haul.

But when iodine was added to a bottle of lake water the precipitate
contained very many minute Cyanophyta, too small to be held by the
plankton net but sufficiently abundant to colour the water green. The
next collection, 7 months later, had quantities of larger Cyanophyta
as well as the minute forms and, in addition, plenty of Melosira . A
month later, in December 1964, Cyanophyta were still abundant, Melosira
much less, and even here with a pH of 9.3, there was 2% of desmids.

At least part of these changes in the phytoplankton must be
attributed to the flow of water from the flooded Main Lake. A sample
taken from the Loydien Bay end of what used to be the connecting
channel showed the plankton to be very similar to that of the Main
Lake. The pH was 7.5 and the alkalinity (.0042) and conductivity
(395) between that of the bay and the lake. If the high level of the
Main Lake continues it should result in a conciderable freshening of
the water of Loydien Bay.

Unfortunately, it was not possible to get complete water analyses

The Phytoplankton of some Kenya Waters

at the time of each collection, but some features of interest are
seen if a comparison is made between the water of the three parts of
the lake in December 1964 (Diagram 3). Loydien Bay had much the
highest alkalinity with resulting high pH and conductivity. 30% of
the alkalinity was due to carbonate. Sodium was high. Crescent
Lake had only about ^ the alkalinity of the bay and it was all due
to bi-carbonate. Conductivity and pH were lower. Chloride was high
and magnesium present. Main Lake was similar to Crescent Lake but
chloride and calcium were lower and magnesium absent.

It is known from studies in Lake Victoria and elsewhere that the
abundance and size of plankton-eating Tilapia is related to the
nature of their food. A cursory glance at the gut contents of
Tilapia from Naivasha showed that they had digested the diatom Melo-
sira rather than the other algae. A further study of this kind
might be of value in developing the fisheries of this lake.

Summary

The composition of the phytoplankton collected at monthly inter¬
vals from Sasumua and Ruiru reservoirs is described. Plankton
periodicity is demonstrated for both waters and is shown in some
instances to be related to rainfall.

The distribution of the major plankton algae in a number of
Kenya waters is described. The lakes and dams are shown to fall into
groups characterised by the dominance of certain types of algae
related to figures for pH, conductivity and alkalinity. The phyto¬
plankton of Lake Naivasha is described and algal periodicity is
demonstrated for this lake.

It is hoped to publish a fuller taxonomic account of this invest¬
igation at a latter date.

Acknowledgments

I am indepted to members of the Nairobi City Engineer's Department
and of the Water Development Department for providing facilities for
this investigation, and particularly to Mr. Bazin and Mr. Innes at
Sasumua . and Ruiru respectively. I am also grateful to Mr. I.Furtado
for making collections while I was on leave and to my colleagues at
the University College for help with water analyses.

(Received for publication 8th March, 1965)

CONDUCT fVlTr

THE PHYTOPLANKTON OF SOME KENYA WATERS

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DISTRIBUTION OF PHYTOPLANKTON IN RELATION TO RAINFALL.

NO COLLECTION WAS MADE IN DECEMBER 1963

RUIRU RESERVOIR

SASUMUA RESERVOIR

THE PHYTOPLANKTON OF SOME KENYA WATERS

DIAGRAM 2: DISTRIBUTION OF PHYTOPLANKTON IN RELATION TO RAINFALL.

NO COLLECTION WAS MADE IN DECEMBER

SPILLWAY LEVEL

Cond. Alkalinit

The Phytoplankton of some Kenya Waters

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THE PHYTOPLANKTON OF SOME KENYA WATERS

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1: Kirchneriella sp.

2: Eudorina sp,

5a: Staurastrum sp.

3: Staurastrum sp.

4: Micrasterias sp,

6: Pennate Diatom

5b: end view of 5a

All figures x 160

THE PHYTOPLANKTON OF SOME KENYA WATERS

12: Microcystis sp.

10: Ceratium sp,

13: Euglena sp.

14: Phacus sp.

All figures x 160

THE PHYTOPLANKTON OF SOME KENYA WATERS

1 Dinobryon. 2 Ceratium. 3 Desmid. 4 Chain Desmid. 5 Chlorophyta.
6 Peridinium. 7 Microcystis. 8 Melosira. 9 Tribonema.

10 Cyanophyta. 11 Eudorina.

J. E.Afr. Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

PERIODIC FLOWERING OF SOME ACANTHACEAE ON MT. ELGON

E.M. TWEEDIE

Introduction

Most species of flowering plants in East Africa flower in relation
to the rains, either before, during, or after, but there are some which
flower at very long intervals, and then en masse. This phenomenon has
been noted before, and is well known in the bamboo (Arundinaria alpina
K. Schum. ) , where the interval between flowerings has been estimated
to be as much as 40 years (Wimbush 1945) e Again, Fey (1964, p. 55)
states "This plant, known to the Kikuyu as Songoya (probably Mimulopsis
solmsii Schweinf.) is of particular interest .... Its life span is
nine to ten years during which it grows to a height of about twelve
feet. It then produces a profusion of pale mauve f lowers " Fey
mentions that the plant last flowered in 1953 on the Western Aberdares.

As far as I know, no one has tried to find out why these plants
flower at such long intervals, and it might be possible to stimulate
interest in this curious and widespread feature of our highland forest
plants by records of flowering. Few people have systematically
recorded flowering times in East Africa and it is as a contribution to
our knowledge of this subject that I write these notes.

Observations

From 1948 to April 1964 we lived on the north-east slopes of
Elgon near the forest boundary. Near the house was a patch of untouched
virgin forest. I found it was carpeted with a tangle of plants with
soft dark green leaves, and when they flowered I collected the
following ; -

Barleria ventricosa Hochst. ex Nees
Hypoestes verticillaris (L.f.) R. Br.

H. triflora (Forsk.) Roem. et Schultz
H. aristata (Vahl) Roem. et Schultz
Isoqlossa qregorii (S. Moore) Lindau
Phaylopsis imbricata (Forsk.) Sweet
Dicliptera lavata C.B.C1.

D. umbellata (Vahl) Juss.

Justicia flava Vahl

These all flowered regularly each year, but I noticed among them
a plant with very different leaves, which did not flower. Each year it
grew taller and eventually flowered in December 1952 and January 1953.

It proved to be Mimulopsis solmsii Schweinf. By then it was five feet
tall and much branched. The flowers were white with a pale brown
throat, and came out irregularly a few at a time. The inflorescence
was covered with dull red sticky glandular hairs. It flowered in a
mass over the whole forest at an altitude of 7,500 ft. to 8,200 ft.
and smothered the usual undergrowth Acanthaceae completely. Eventually
it died down, and its dead stems covered the ground and all the usual
herbaceous plants were buried beneath it. Towards the end of the rainy

Periodic Flowering of some Acanthaceae on Mt . Elgon

season young seedlings appeared among the rotting stems, and more in
the early rains the following year. By the end of 1954 the usual popu¬
lation of Acanthaceae had taken over, though in rather different
proportions. Then the plants of Mimulopsis solmsii with their distinc¬
tive leaves began to appear again. In October 1961 they began to
flower, and there was a mass flowering as before, followed by a similar
dying down, and reappearance of the usual plant population. This gives
a nine-year interval between one flowering and another, but I shall not
be there in 1970 to see if the interval between flowerings is regular;

There is another plant growing on Elgon from about 8,800 ft. to
the upper edge of the forest, which also flowers at intervals.

Mimulopsis cf. qlandulosa • (Lind) Bullock non Bak. is rather like
M. solmsii in habit, but its flowers are larger and a pretty mauve
colour, with a yellow flash on the lower petal and a white throat,
darker inside. The stem, calyces and pedicels are covered with dark
reddish hairs and it grows to four or five feet. It has one peculiar¬
ity, that quite short stems which have been hacked off beside the
track or grazed off just outside the upper edge of the forest can
still produce a few conspicuous mauve flowers. In January of 1947
when I was ascending Elgon it made a sheet of bloom all over the upper
part of the forest. Further mass flowerings occurred in the dry
seasons of 1956 and 1964. I also collected it in 1951 but am not sure
if that was a mass flowering or only an isolated plant, such as occur
very rarely between the mass flowerings. I did not, however, make
such careful observations as I was able to do with M. solmsii owing
to the distance of the locality from my house.

Mimulopsis arborescens C.B.C1. is also to be found on Elgon. It
is a large plant ten feet tall, with leaves up to nine inches across.

Its flowers are cream with a chocolate brown throat and they turn
brown when they die. This plant is rare in the area of which I have
experience, but it is conspicuous. It is only recently that it has ■
occurred to me that I do not see its flowers every year. I have not
had the opportunity to make a continual study of this plant, but I
think it would be found to flower at intervals like the others.

I have found the same behaviour in two species of Isoqlossa . In
the spring of 1951 I sent a specimen to Kew (891) which may prove to
be anew species. When asked for more material I had the greatest
difficulty in finding it again and regarded it as a rare plant until
in January 1953 it made a mass flowering in conjunction with Mimulopsis
solmsii and it did the same in the dry season of 1961 to early 1962,
again in conjunction with M. solmsii. It has the same soft dark leaves
and herbaceous habit as the common Acanthaceae of the forest under¬
growth but it is the only one among them to have this mass flowering
at intervals. It has a white flower with light brown markings on the
petals .

Thirteen miles from this patch of forest is the bridge over the
Suam River, where the same sort of forest comes down to 7,000 ft. in
the valley of theSuam.^ Here in September 1959 I found a plant of
Isoqlossa oerstediana Lindau which I had never seen among the
Acanthaceae of my own patch of forest. When visiting the same place
in October 1963 I noticed that this plant was making a mass flowering
in certain parts of the forest near the river. At the same time I
found quite a number of these plants in my own patch of forest where I
had never seen it before, but not enough to be considered a mass flower¬
ing. It has the same habit as the other Acanthaceae of the forest

J. E . Af r . Nat .Hist . Soc .

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

undergrowth; the flowers are white shaded with pink and with very small
dark maroon calyces.

Summary .

Periodic mass flowering has been recorded in Kenya, but dates are
rare. Years of mass flowering may be separated by years during which
there are no flowers, or flowers may be merely rare in the interval.
The following species and dates of mass flowering for Elgon have been
recorded in this paper.

Mimulopsis solmsii Dec. 1952 - Jan. 1953.

Oct. - Dec. 1961.

Mimulopsis cf. qlandulosa Jan. 1947

----- oct. 1956
Jan. 1964

Mimulopsis arborescens Dec. 1953 probably periodic but not

recorded.

Isoqlossa sp. (Tweedie 891) Dec. 1952 - Jan. 1953

Oct. - Dec. 1961

Isoqlossa oerstediana Oct. 1963. probably periodic but not

recorded .

Ref erences .

FEY, V. (1964) Cloud over Kenya, Collins, London.

WIMBUSH, S.H. (1945) The African Alpine Bamboo. Emp.For . J. 24: p. 33 -

39.

(Received 2nd June, 1965)

■ •

J. E.Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KAKAMEGA FOREST

J.R.M. TENNENT

Thanks to its remoteness from Nairobi, Kakamega Forest has seldom
been regularly visited by ornithologists, so although the following
notes are based only on sight records, they add considerably to what
is known about the species of birds to be found there. As is well
known, the Kakamega Forest is, in its botanical composition, different
from any of the other Kenya forests, being in fact an outlier of
Uganda and West African types. It contains some valuable timber trees
which are being exploited and as a result there are large parts of
the forest where the majority of the trees which formed the canopy
have been felled. In these areas, thanks to the high rainfall, a
dense secondary growth twenty to forty feet high has quickly formed.

The Forest Department is carrying out a programme of "enrichment" of
the cut-over areas and of some untouched areas which contain few valu¬
able trees. For this purpose small clearings are made so that useful
timber trees can be introduced in the natural habitat. Such small
clearings are attractive to some species for feeding. Another feature
of the forest is the occurrence of scattered grass glades, fringed
with scrub, some having a fire-climax cover of scattered trees.

As no collecting was done there are inevitably lacunae among the
birds of the difficult groups such as especially the Bulbuls, Warblers
and Swifts.

The nomenclature used in the systematic list follows Mackworth-
Praed and Grant - Birds of Eastern and North Eastern Africa( London
1952 and 1955). The numbers given to the species in that work are
added for convenience. Mr. J.G„ Williams, Curator of the Department
of Ornithology at the Coryndon Museum, has kindly checked the manuscript
and is responsible for the notes marked J.G.W,

147. Crowned Hawk-eagle, Stephanoaetus coronatus (Linnaeus)

An inaccessible nest was occupied in late June and early
July 1959 but the birds were disturbed by logging.

157. Banded Harrier-eagle, Circaetus cinerascens Muller
One, 28th. August, 1959.

189. Forest Francolin, Francolinus lathami (Hartlaub)

It was probably this species which was very common but
equally shy. (The common forest Francolin is 204 The Scaly
Francolin, F. squamatus (Cassin) : collected. J.G.W.)

217. The Crested Guinea-Fowl, Guttera edouardi (Hartlaub)

Is not uncommon. J.G.W.

380. Olive Pidgeon, Columba arquatrix Timminck
Always abundant.

383. Bronze-naped Pigeon, Turturoena delagorquei (Delagorgue)

Common .

394. Tambourine Dove, Tympanistria tympanistria (Timminck and Knip)

Very common.

Birds of Kakamega Forest

398. Lemon Dove, Aplopelia larvata (Temminck and Knip)

Common in cut-over forest and drier parts of the primary
forest .

406. Red-chested Cuckoo, Cuculus solitarius Stephens
Seen only once on the edge of a glade.

416. Emerald Cuckoo, Chrysococcyx cupreus (Shaw)

Common, though less so than in the surrounding cultivated
country.

418. Klaas’ Cuckoo, Chrysococcyx klaas (Stephens)

Common in surrounding cultivated country but not seen in the
forest .

424. Yellow-bill, Centnmocares aereus (Vieillot)

Common .

432. Hartlaub’s Turaco, Tauraco hartlaubi (Fischer & Reichenow)

A party seen once on 28th. August, 1959.

437. Great Blue Turaco, Corytheola cristata (Vieillot)

Common, emerging from the forest to feed in the high trees
along rivers. The writer is not familiar with this species
in Uganda but birds seen in Kakamega forest showed a notice¬
able green tinge on the neck, the feature by which Mearns
separates a sub-species C.c. yalensis which is not accepted
by Van Someren (Novitates Zooloqicae, XXIX, No. 1, (1922)).

442. Grey Parrot, Psittacus erithacus Linn.

Uncommon .

494. Blue-headed Bee-eater, Mellitophaqus mulleri (Cassin)

Commonly seen feeding in small open places, such as where a
large tree had fallen, in the heavy forest.

500. Black-and-white-casqued Hornbill, Bycanistes subcylindricus

( Sclater )

Common. Feed largely outside the forest, especially in the
large trees along the rivers.

509. Crowned Hornbill, Tockus albiterminatus ( Buttikorf er)

Scarce, probably feeding mainly outside the forest. Feeding
young at a nest near the edge on 17th. May, 1959.

522. White-headed Wood-hoopoe, Phoeniculus bollei (Hartlaub)

Regularly seen in the high trees of primary forest.

570. Narina’s Trogon, Apaloderma narina (Stephens)

Common. .Especially attracted to ’enrichment glades’ for
feeding. Apparently of the Congo race, A.n, brachyurum Chapin,
or perhaps intermediate, having a green suffusion on the chest.

571. Bar-tailed Trogon, Heterotroqon vittatum (Shelley)

Regularly seen, behaving much as the last species. A male
seen at very close quarters appeared to have the top of the
head of a blue-green colour and so was perhaps also of the
Congo race, H. v. camerunensis Reichenow.

J. E.Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

586. Grey-throated Barbet, Gymnobucco bonapartei Hartlaub

One flock seen. Its habit of perching at the top of high
trees may make it seem less common than it is.

590. Yellow-spotted Barbet, Buccannodon duchaillui (Cassin)

Common, especially in secondary forest.

597. Golden-rumped Tinker-bird, Poqoniulus bilineatus (Sundevall)
Common, mainly in secondary forest, but also found feeding
even in the undergrowth of heavy primary forest.

604. Yellow-billed Barbet, Trachylaemus purpuratus (Verreaux)

Common .

610. Least Honey-Guide, Indicator exilis (Cassin)

One small honey guide, almost certainly of this species
hawking insects on 11th. October, 1959. (The Thick-billed
Honey-Guide Indicator conirostris (Cassin) 609, and 608
Lesser Honey-Guide I, minor Stephens have been collected. J.G.W.)

623. Cardinal Woodpecker, Dendropicos fuscescens (Vieillot)

In thin woodland round glades etc.

632. Yellow-crested Woodpecker, Mesopicos xantholophus (Hargitt)

One pair seen in cut-over forest, October, 1959.

649. Sabine1 s Spinetail, Chaetura sabini Grey

Several usually to be seen in an area centering on a point
about one mile east of Rondo Sawmill. (Vide J. E.Afr. Nat .Hist.

Soc . Vol. XXIII No. 7, I960). Subsequently to the writer's
discovering these birds in the Kakamega Forest Mr. B. Monroe
from the Louisiana University Natural History Museum shot
specimens, of which some are in the Coryndon Museum collec¬
tion. He told the writer that he had found the species in
other parts of the forest also but in 1959 they were never
seen except at the locality mentioned above.

660. Flappet-Lark , Mirafra ruf ocinnamomea (Salvadori)

In the grassy glades it was common. Nest with young hatching
4th. April, 1959.

740. Abyssinian Hill-babbler, Pseudoalcippe abvssinicus (Ruppell)

Only one seen in the higher eastern part of the forest at
5600 ft.

746. Bristle-bill, Bleda syndactyla Swainson

Not common. Feeding often in mixed bird "waves" which
included flycatchers and wattle-eyes. (Commonly taken in
mist nets. J.G.W.)

770. Joyful Greenbul, Chlorocichla laetissima (Sharpe)

On the edges of clearings in secondary forest rather than in
primary forest.

776. Yellow-whiskered Greenbul, Stelqidocichla latirostris (Strickland)
Common .

811. Shrike-flycatcher, Meqabyas flammulatus Verreaux

Common in October but not seen at any other time.

Birds of Kakamega Forest

813. Yellow-bellied Flycatcher, Hyliota flaviqaster Swainson

Noted from primary and secondary forest as well as from a grass
glade with scattered small trees.

822. Wattle-eye, Platvsteira cyanea (Muller)

Not as common as the next two species, though found commonly
in clumps of trees outside the forest, as for example in
Kakamega boma .

824. Chestnut Wattle-eye, Dyaphorophyia castanea (Fraser)

Common. Sometimes feeding in mixed bird parties.

82b. Jameson's Wattle-eye, Dyaphorophyia jamesoni Sharpe

The commonest wattle-eye in some parts of the dense forest.

826. Yellow-bellied Wattle-eye, Dyaphorophyia concreta (Hartlaub)

Common in places. Like the other species of wattle-eye it
seemed to prefer areas where comparatively small trees of open
habit were scattered not too densely.

827. Blue Flycatcher, Erranornis lonqicauda (Swainson)

Very common on the edge of the forest glades but never within
the forest.

831. Dusky Crested Flycatcher, Trochocercus niqromitratus (Reichenow)

Common. Seen feeding in mixed bird parties including wattle-
eyes .

832. Paradise Flycatcher, Tchitrea viridis (Muller)

In thickets in glades, but not in the forest proper.

841. Olive Thrush, Turdus olivaceus (Linnaeus)

Not common.

889. Blue-shouldered Robin-chat, Cossypha cyanocampter (Bonaparte)

Not common.

898. Equatorial Akalat, Sheppardia aequatorialis (Jackson)

Common in the densest parts of the forest.

901. Fire-crested Alethe, Alethe castanea (Cassin)

One only seen in a rather dry part of the forest in May, 1959.

965. Uganda Woodland Warbler, Seicercus budonqoensis (Seth-Smith)

Seen once feeding in an 1 enrichment glade*.

969. Fan-tailed Warbler, Schoenicola brevirostris (Sundevall)

Appeared in numbers in a glade having rank vegetation during
July, 1959.

972. Buf f-throated Apalis, Apalis rufoqularis (Fraser)

Common .

973. Grey Apalis, Apalis cinerea (Sharpe)

Not seen in the forest proper but in an isolated forest patch
in cultivated country three miles to the west.

976. Black-backed Apalis, Apalis niqrescens (Jackson)

Seen twice only, in July 1959.

J.E.Afr.Nat.Hist.Soc.

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

977.

1007.

1011.

1048.

1049.
1053.

1082.

1083.

1084.

1086.

1087.

1089.

1110.

1127.

1132.

Black-collared Apalis, Apalis pulchra (Sharpe)

Common .

Brown-crowned Eremomela, Eremomela badiceps Fraser
Common in small flocks.

Grey-backed Camaroptera, Camaroptera brevicaudata (Cretschmar)
Common in bush areas surrounding the forest but remarkable
for its absence from the forest proper. This is in contrast
with its inhabiting of forests east of the Rift Valley.

White-chinned Prinia, Prinia leucopoqon (Cabanis)

Common in undergrowth in more open parts of the forest.

Banded Prinia, Prinia bairdii (Cassin)

Common in undergrowth in small clearings.

Black-faced Rufous Warbler, Bathmocercus rufus (Reichenow)
Common in the undergrowth of the primary forest but showing
no noticeable preference for marshy places as indicated by
Mackworth-Praed and Grant. Occasionally feeding on the
ground.

Petit’s Cuckoo-shrike, Campephaga petiti Oustalet

Common in some places in glades with scattered trees, and
also on the edge of the high forest.

Red-shouldered Cuckoo-shrike, Campephaga Phoenicia (Latham)

Not seen in the forest proper but watched building in an
isolated forest patch a few miles to the west, 4th. to 6th.
June 1959.

Purple-throated Cuckoo-shrike, Campephaga guiscalina Finsch
Not seen in the forest but noted in dense bush in Kakamega
township and probably also occurs in the forest.

Grey Cuckoo-shrike, Coracina caesia (Lichtenstein)

Seen only once, and being an easily seen species, is probably
therefore scarce.

Velvet-mantled Drongo, Dicrurus modestus Hartlaub

Square-tailed Drongo, Dicrurus ludwigii (Smith)

Both these species were present but it was frequently diffi¬
cult to distinguish them. The former appeared to be the
commoner.

Mackinnon's Shrike, Lanius mackinnoni Sharpe

Characteristic of the bushy grassland and areas outside the
forest but one pair seen regularly, and probably nesting, in
an area of secondary forest which was cut by a narrow road.

Ludher’s Bush-shrike, Laniarius ludheri Reichenow
Common .

Pink-footed Puffback, Dryoscopus angolensis Hartlaub
Common in secondary forest.

Birds of Kakamega Forest

1134. Brown-headed Bush-shrike, Tchaqra australis (Smith)

Not in the forest proper but noted in an open pine plantation.

1141. Grey-green Bush-shrike, Chlorophoneus bocagei (Reichenow)

Common in the bush or glades but not in the heavy forest.

1157. Dusky Tit, Parus funereus (Verreaux)

Common. Nesting 31st. May, 1959.

1167. Black-headed Oriole, Oriolus larvatus Lichtenstein
Common .

1185. Sharpe's Starling, Pholia sharpei (Jackson)

Large flock, of. which the majority were young birds, on 4th.
October 1959.

1209. Stuhlmann ' s Starling, Stilbopsar stuhlmanni Reichenow
Common .

1266. Green-headed Sunbird, Cyanomitra verticalis (Latham)

Common on the edge of the forest.

1271. Collared Sunbird, Anthreptes collaris (Vieillot)

Common; characteristic of the forest edges. Building 25th.
October, 1959.

1272. Grey-throated Sunbird, Anthreptes tephrolaema (Jardine & Fraser)

Uncommon.

1335. Dark-backed Weaver, Symplectes bicolor (Vieillot)

Common, occurring in deep primary forest. Seen once
associating with Black-billed Weavers (q.v.). Building 4th.
October, 1959.

1344. Vieillot's Black Weaver, Melanopteryx niqerrimus (Vieillot)

A nesting colony at the forest station in Acrocarpus and
other exotic trees was occupied in June and July, 1959. The
species was not an inhabitant of the indigenous forest.

1346. Black-billed Weaver, Heteryphantes melanoqaster (Shelley)

Common in secondary growth. See Dark-backed Weaver above.

1356. Red-headed Malimbe, Malimbus rubricollis (Swainson)

Common .

1374. Marsh Widow-bird, Coliuspasser hartlaubi (Bocage)

In marshy parts of glades.

1376. Red-naped Widow-bird, Coliuspasser laticauda (Lichtenstein)
Several in a large glade on 13th. June, 1959.

1380. Black-and-white Mannikin, Spermestes poensis (Fraser)

On forest edge.

1386. Grey-headed Negro-rinch, Nigrita canicapilla (Strickland)
Inhabiting very dense undergrowth in cut-over forest and
very hard to observe.

1391. Red-headed Blue-bill, Spermophaqa ruficapilla (Shelley)

Probable. Very retiring in undergrowth. ^Common; often
collected in mist nets) J.G.W.

(Received 3rd December 1962)

100

J.E. Afr. Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

OBSERVATIONS ON VERREAUX’S EAGLE OWL Bubo lacteus (Temminck)

IN KENYA
By

L.H. Brown

This paper brings together scattered observations made in various
parts of Kenya between 1947 and 1964. Little seems to have been pub¬
lished on the behaviour and habits of this owl, so that these details
on breeding habits and food may be of value. The majority of the
observations were made at a breeding site in Karen, 13 miles from
Nairobi, in August-September 1963, but some observations were also
made in Embu district, and at scattered localities elsewhere in Kenya.

Verreaux's Eagle Owl is quite a common bird in Kenya, though not
often observed for long. It appears to be an inhabitant of forest
edges near open country, and is specially fond of strips of riverine
Acacia forest. In such localities its deep hoot proclaims its presence
soon after dark, and often by day as well. Pairs of the species are
nearly always to be found roosting close together, sometimes sitting on
the same branch. When they start to hunt in the early hours of the
night they move further apart, but keep in touch by calls, which make
them easy to locate. The voice of one sex, probably the female, is
deeper than that of the other.

II Voice.

The normal call is a very deep double hoot "oop-poop" , almost as
deep as the call of the Ground Hornbill Bucorvus leadbeateri (Vigors).
It can be confused with the call of that species, particularly as both
these birds are likely to roost in, and call from, riverine Acacia
forest at dusk and dawn. However, the voice of this owl is varied and
the following other calls have been noted.

(i) In what appears to be a mutual nuptial display the pair sit close
together, but not necessarily facing each other, and emit a series of
short sharp hoots in turn, while at the same time jerking the body up
and down, and slightly flicking the folded wings. One bird, probably
the male, calls Muh-uhu-uh-uhn , to be answered in a slightly deeper
tone by its partner Muh-uh" . This duet may continue for some time. A
pair I watched near Kianyagga in Embu district on 26.3.47 kept it up
for at least fifteen minutes and only stopped when they became aware

of my presence. This behaviour would appear similar to "duetting"
observed in the European Eagle Owl Bubo bubo Linnaeus (Witherby et . al .
1943) ; it is perhaps the origin of the Kikuyu name for this species
" Gitunduququ

(ii) A long-drawn-out, rasping MSh^ooooo-ooo-eh,, uttered, apparently
by the male only, in distraction display near the nest.

(iii) A soft low 11 who k” or "whook" uttered in agitation or alarm by the
female near the nest.

(iv) A high pitched, long-drawn-out, squeal or mew "Psheeeeee-eee-eew"
uttered by the young bird and the female at a nest in Embu district,

101

Verreaux’s Eagle Owl in Kenya

1952. The young bird emitted this call when soliciting the parent for
food, and during the whole of one afternoon it carried on a duet with
its female parent who was in a tree on the other side of a valley half
a mile away. The two called and answered each other at intervals of
about 10-15 seconds, and while calling the young laid its head back
and called with the bill almost closed. Although not loud this call
carries far, for the voice of the young bird in the nest twenty feet
from me seemed hardly any louder than that of the adult female half a
mile away.

In addition to these calls the adults and the young snap their
bills sharply, as do many owls, when alarmed or in danger.

Ill Breeding Behaviour.

( 1) Nest records.

This owl breeds in abandoned or commandeered nests of- other birds.
Grossman and Hamlet (1965) state that it occasionally builds its own,
but this is probably an uncritical acceptance of dubious records. The
owl breeds in stick structures, but does not make them itself. From
Embu district I have the following records:

(i) In the unused nest of a Wahlberg’s Eagle (Aquila wahlberqi
Sundevall) , in Combretum woodland at about 4,000 ft A.S.L. The nest
was in a tall Ficus capensis Thunb., a tree favoured by this eagle,
perhaps because of the smooth powdery upper branches which make it
very difficult to climb. It contained a well-grown young bird on
5.7.52, which would indicate egg-laying in late April or early May.

The sequence of events at this nest was remarkable. In October 1951
it had contained an egg of Aquila wahlberqi, which was addled and
deserted by December. In February and March 1952 a pair of Long-
crested Eagles Lophaetus occipitalis (Daudin) occupied the nest and
apparently incubated the Wahlberg’s Eagle’s egg for 44 days before
again deserting it. This egg, now in the National Museum, was identi¬
fied as probably a Wahlberg’s Eagle’s egg and therefore not an egg of
Lophaetus by Sir Charles Belcher (who was asked his opinion of the egg
without being told the full story) . After the Lophaetus deserted the
owls took over, and I used the hide I had put up for watching / the
Lophaetus to watch the owls later. The young owl was successfully
reared.

This nest was also said to have been used by a pair of large owls
in September 1950, but I could not confirm this. The vernacular name
"Gitundugugu” is also applied to the Spotted Eagle Owl Bubo africanus
(Temminck) , a smaller species that normally nests in rocks on the
ground, but sometimes in a tree. Although Verreaux’s Eagle Owl may
have been the occupant in 1950 also it seems more likely that it was
Bubo africanus, which normally breeds in September in Embu district.

The normal breeding time of Bubo lacteus avoids conflict with the
normal breeding time of Aquila wahlberqi. but in any case the eagles
were probably using an alternative nest in 1950 and would not have
competed with the eagle owls for nest space.

(ii) In the abandoned nest of a Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus
(Daudin) in a tall Acacia xanthphloea Benth. near the Thiba River at
about 3,600 ft. on 6.3.52. The nest was known to have belonged to
Bateleurs, and the sitting owl was very conspicuous on the rather small
structure .

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J. E.Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

(iii) In the abandoned nest of a White-backed Vulture Gyps (Pseu-
doqyps) africanus (Salvadori) , also in a tall Acacia xanthophloea near
the Thiba River at about 3,600 ft. A0S0L„ in March 1953. This was not
the same pair that occupied the Bateleur’s nest, but was about five
miles downstream of that pair.

These three records indicate that in Embu district eggs of this
owl are likely to be laid in March or April, and the extraordinary pre¬
nuptial display described under calls is to be seen in March just
before egg-laying. Other records are:

( iv) A pair took over the partly built nest of a Hammerkop
Scopus umbretta (Gmelin) on the Perkerra irrigation scheme in Baringo
district about 15.5.62. Hammerkops begin the construction of their
nest by making an ordinary bowl or saucer-shaped base of sticks, which
is later roofed over. The Verreaux’s Eagle Owls are too big to enter
the small entrance hole of the completed nest, so they take over the
bowl-shaped base. The completed structure is sometimes usurped or
occupied by the Barn Owl Tyto alba (Scopoli). In this particular case
the eagle owl brooded in the nest before it actually laid eggs, and
the Hammerkop was unable to dislodge it despite repeated attacks. Two
eggs had been laid by 30.5. and the Hammerkops were obliged to start
yet another new nest.

(v) In the abandoned nest of a Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes
monachus (Temminck) in a garden at Karen. The nest was in the dead
and leafless remains of a parasitic fig, Ficus thonninqii Blume, and
was entirely open and unshaded, about thirty feet from the ground in
the central main crotch. It contained a well-grown young bird on
24.8.63, probably hatched from an egg laid about mid-June. This was
the nest at which most of the other observations in this paper were
made .

These two other records indicate that in some other parts of Kenya
Bubo lacteus breeds later in the year than it does in Embu district.

(2) Development and behaviour of the young in the nest.

Young birds of this species are clad in pale grey down which be¬
comes hidden by a growth of finely barred grey and white feathers,
quite unlike the adult plumage. A young bird about six weeks out of
the egg was barred grey and white all over except for the thighs , which
were plain white, and a black streak on either side of the face. Eyes
almost black, surrounded by long black bristles, bill pale blue-grey,
feet yellowish white. The upper eyelids were orange-pink, as in the
adult, but paler.

I have notes on the behaviour of well grown young only. The young
bird in the Embu nest (i) was observed for 3 hours on the afternoon of
6.7.52 and for 4 hours after dark on 5.7.52. During the day it stood
or crouched in the nest, generally rather inactive, but standing up
when it appeared it was unobserved; it carried on the duet already
described under Voice with its female parent on the other side of the
valley. After dark, however, it became very much more active, walking
about the nest, and indulging in several bouts of wing flapping. At
night, in fact, it behaved very much in the manner of a young diurnal
raptor by day towards the end of the fledging period. When the parent
settled in the tree above my hide the young one became very excited,
crouching in the nest, swaying its head from side to side, and emitting
high pitched calls. This was evidently its normal behaviour when
soliciting food.

103

Verreaux’s Eagle Owl in Kenya

The young bird in the nest at Karen was watched at intervals from
24.8. - mid September 1963. No long periods of observation at night
were possible but I sometimes stayed for a time after dark without
seeing anything very significant. On 28.8.63 the young bird fell out
of the nest, probably because it was continually mobbed by other birds
including Augur Buzzards Buteo rufofuscus (Forster), Pied Crows
Corvus albus Muller and even a Cuckoo Falcon Aviceda cuculoides
Swainson. It had recently reached a stage of development when the
parents left it alone by day and was consequently vulnerable to attack
in the completely open nest. It was replaced and protected by an
arrangement of wooded bars which effectively prevented other large
birds from swooping too low over its head. It was successfully reared
and left the nest in late September. I erected a hide in another tree
by degrees but by the time it was complete the young bird had flown.

In the short periods observed after dark it did not move about much,
probably because the parents were in the vicinity, and the female,
which could see me, continually emitted the soft 11 who k" alarm call.

This Karen owlet must have been 50-60 days old when it left the
nest in late September. After leaving the nest it perched with its
parents in large shady trees nearby, and was fed there; however I was
not able to do much observation at this time. Although Bubo lacteus
usually lays two eggs it seems from my records that only one young
bird is normally reared.

( 3) Behaviour of the Parents

Little detail is available of the behaviour of the parents except
under the rather unnatural circumstances of disturbance near the nest.

At the Embu nest (i) the young was very well grown and the parents
were not sitting near it in the tree by day, but in an Acacia on the
other side of the valley about half a mile away. When I climbed the
tree by day or by night to examine the young the parent - I thought
the female - would fly across the valley and perch in the upper branch¬
es of the fig tree containing the nest, snapping its bill, and
displaying anxiety or annoyance with ear-tufts raised. At night she
settled on a branch a few feet above my head and watched me enter the
hide at close range, so that the usual deception practised on these
occasions of sending one's companion away did not deceive her. She
later left, but returned when my relief came to help me out of , the
hide and clearly would not bring prey to the nest while we were in the
neighbourhood. As the tree was about sixty feet high, growing on a
rocky escarpment, and difficult to climb, and as my right arm was in a
plaster cast I was most thankful that she was not aggressive in the
dark, as some owls are.

At the Karen nest the parents were usually to be found by day in
two large shady Croton meqalocarpus Hutch, trees about thirty yards
from it. When I arrived they became excited and would usually fly
across the garden to a grove of Eucalyptus trees a hundred yards away,
whence they would watch me till I left, constantly mobbed by crows as
they perched in the open on bare branches. They did not seem to be
discommoded by. strong daylight at all. If I stayed till dusk and
later, hiding in a clump of low trees, they would return to the Crotons,
but they could clearly see me, or knew I was there, and would not go
to the nest while I watched.

The male of this pair performed a remarkable distraction display.
From his perch on the Eucalyptus he would glide down, low over the
ground, with drooping wings as if injured, and alight on a low branch

104

J.E.Afr.Nat.Hist.Soc.

Vo 1. XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

where he hung with flapping wings, sometimes upside-down. As he glided
down he emitted the long-drawn rasping screech already mentioned. The
performance was a good example of an injury-feigning display, and
effectively attracted the attention of a dog. When the male was again
approached on his low perch as he hung there apparently helpless he
would right himself and fly away normally. Injury-feigning displays
of this type are performed by several other owls e.g. the Long-eared
Owl Asio otus Linnaeus and the Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus
( Pontoppidan ) (Witherby et . al . 1943). It seemed to be only the male
that performed in this way; the female remained closer to the nest,
emitting the soft 11 whok" calls.

Most eagle owls have striking brilliant orange or yellow, even
red eyes. In VerreauxTs Eagle Owl the eyes themselves are almost black,
and the painting by Thorburn in Archer and Godman, the Birds of British
Somaliland and the Gulf of Aden, is erroneous. In Bubo lacteus how¬
ever, the upper eyelids are orange-pink, and are very conspicuous when
the eyes are closed or partly closed. These upper eyelids seemed to
be very obvious when the male did this distraction display, so that
possibly they have some display significance, perhaps replacing the
brilliant orbs of other eagle owls.

IV Food.

Bubo lacteus is a bird of very varied diet that will eat anything
from quite large mammals to small insects. On a few occasions I
have watched this owl catching insects in the light of a strong lamp
or headlight. One of these occasions was at Treetops near Nyeri on
the night of 24.2.61, when soon after dark a Verreaux’s Eagle Owl
began catching insects at the edge of the floodlit area among the
hooves of a large herd of buffalo. It continued for several hours in
this way but by 11 p.m. had evidently caught enough, for it went away
and was heard calling at intervals. Once, when a rhinoceros approached
the bird closely, it fluffed itself up and erected its feathers in
threat display, and throughout it appeared quite unafraid of the great
beasts milling around the floodlit area.

A collection of pellets, feathers, skins etc. was made beneath
the roosting trees at the Karen nest, largely by Master Ewan Muir,
aged three. Having seen me pick up a few skins he followed suit, and
most of the results below are due to his interest. These pellets have
been analysed by Mr. A. Duff-Mackay of the National Museum, Nairobi,
whose assistance is gratefully acknowledged. The following is a list
of the food items from pellets or otherwise.

105

Verreaux’s Eagle Owl in Kenya

Prey

No.

Notes

MAMMALIA

RODENT I A

Tachyoryctes sp. 6

Otomys sp. 5

Rattus rattus 1

Mastomys couchei 1

Arvicanthis abyssinicus 1

Cricetomys qambianus 1

Unidentified rat-sized rodents. 3+
Unidentified mouse-sized

rodents 1+

Total rodents 19

I NS EOT IVOR A

Atherix 4

CHIROPTERA

Rousettus

Unidentified

PRIMATES

Galaqo crass icaudatus

Total mammals

33+

The figures for rodents are
minimum numbers derived from
skulls except for the Cricetomys
which was identified from a
skeletal bone. Probably more
rodents are in fact taken.

skulls + at least 11 skins, indica¬
ting at least 11 killed. Many
other skins were not picked up and
this is one of the favourite prey
animals .

BIRDS

? Ploceus sp. 1

? Pycnonotus sp. 1

? Parus sp. 1

Tyto alba 1

Bubo africanus 1

? Corvus albus 1

Zosterops 3

? Nectarinia

Total Birds 9

These were all that was identified
out of a large number of bird
bones. At least 9 birds were
included in the collection, and
probably more. Small birds are
presumably taken on the roost, but
the Tyto alba was apparently adult
and evidently other owls are not
immune from predation by their
powerful cousin. The Pied Crow was
apparently a nestling. Probably
many more birds are taken than
this list represents as many bones
were not identified.

REPTILIA

1 snake, possibly Baeodon fuliqinosus
AMPHIBIA

Unidentified 16

Total 59

Since bones of Amphibia are usually
more completely digested by raptors
than are those of mammals it is
probable that more frogs are taken
than this list would indicate.

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J. E.Af r .Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vo 1. XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

To sum up 59 prey items include 33 mammals, 9 birds, 1 reptile, and
16 Amphibia (frogs). Remains of insects were also found in castings.

This list would indicate that more than half the prey is mammalian
(56%), about 27% Amphibia, and the rest birds and occasional reptiles.
These figures refer to numbers, and by weight mammals, including all
the largest kills, would predominate to a greater extent. Birds are
probably more important than would appear, and surprisingly small birds
are taken. Among mammals the hedgehog, which is well protected by its
spines from some other predators and is scarcely ever taken by diurnal
birds of prey because of its nocturnal habits, is a favourite prey.
Hedgehogs are skinned before being eaten, and the skins are discarded
beneath the roost perches. Probably many more hedgehogs were taken by
this Karen pair than appear in the above list.

From this list the Verreaux’s Eagle Owl would seem to be beneficial
or neutral in its activities towards human beings, but it would probably
take poultry if it could get them, and was accused of doing so - without
real evidence - by the neighbours of the owners of the plot on which
the nest was situated.

Summary .

(I) Scattered observations on Verreaux’s Eagle Owl Bubo lacteus made
between 1947 and 1963 are brought together.

( I I ) Four calls, in addition to the double hoot, are described with
their associated behaviour.

(ill) Five nest records, some notes on the behaviour of young, and of
the adults, including a striking distraction display, are given.

(IV) A list of 59 food items contains 33 mammals, 16 frogs, 9 birds,
and one snake at least, besides unidentified bones and insect remains.
The owl is probably neutral or beneficial to human beings.

References .

1. ARCHER, G.F . and GODMAN E.M. 1961. The Birds of British Somaliland

and the Gulf of Aden, Vol. III. London.

2. GROSSMAN, M.L. and HAMLET, J. 1965. Birds of Prey of the World,

Cassell, London.

3. WITHERBY, H.F., JOURDAIN, F.C.R., TICEHURST, N.F., and TUCKER, B.W.

1943. The Handbook of British Birds. London.

(Received 25th May, 1965)

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J.E.Afr.Nat.Hist.Soc.

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

THE PARADISE WHYDAH AND THE BROAD-TAILED PARADISE WHYDAH

C.J. TWEEDY

With regard to the separation of the Paradise Whydah, Steganura
paradisaea (Linnaeus) and the Broad-tailed Paradise Whydah, Steganura
orientalis (Heuglin) as distinct species, it may be of interest to
note an occurrence of both species in the same locality.

In May, June and July 1964 I could be almost certain of seeing
S. orientalis on or near a small open 1 shamba ’ at Msati, near Chidya,
in the Masasi district of southern Tanzania. But on June 28th, near
this same ’ shamba T and immediately after my observing S. orientalis, a
single adult male S. paradisaea appeared, and perched openly at about
20 ft. up. The two central tail-feathers of S. orientalis were seen as
usual to be broad to their tips, but those of S. paradisaea were seen
as two broad and short with bare shafts when blown or held apart
coming thinly into one when joined. Distinction when feathers are
seen separately is absolutely unmistakable.

I had not previously seen S, paradisaea nearer than the Chiungutwa
area on the Masasi-Newala road; S. orientalis I never saw anywhere
outside a radius of less than two miles round Chidya.

Call -

I never heard the call of S. paradisaea; but I made four written
records to the call of S. orientalis, which is described by Mackworth-
Praed and Grant (1960, Vol. II, p. 1051) as "Unrecorded" . These notes
(for May 17th, May 20th, June”2nd and July 11th) all record the call
as a rattle or chatter, reminding me of the Mistle-Thrush , Turdus
viscivorus , but rather quieter and smoother in sound; or of the
chatter of the Grey-headed Sparrow, Passer griseus Vieillot, though
again less harsh than this. The rattle was sometimes prolonged for
two or three seconds; and I once heard it in a whisper - a kind of
rattling twitter, given on rising from the ground. During the display
recorded below, the usual rattle was heard, followed by ’chuck, chuck,
chuck,* in the same timbre.

Display

On July 11th, I witnessed an interesting display by an adult male

S. orientalis. in an open tree at 15 - 20 ft. up. At first it made

very brief flights - little more than extended hops - usually approach¬
ing a small bird not certainly identified as the female, and giving
the special call as above.

When stationary, the bird on one occasion for some time held its

tail in a remarkable position, as if on three different levels. The

short tail-feathers were held with their barbs vertical as usual; but
one of the two elongated tail-feathers was also held, at a slightly
lower level, with the barbs vertical; and the other elongated tail-
feather was held lower still, ’very thin with a blob at the tip’. (I
understand that the very unusual appearance of the lowest feather was
caused bv extreme wear in a feather which had for some reason not been
moulted.) At the same time the head was held forward and nodded fairly
vigorously again and again.

108

The Paradise Whydahs

Another display of the bird on the same occasion, was when it
sat perched normally, with the tail hanging as usual, and turned its
head steadily from side to side.

(Received on 31st March, 1965)

109

J. E. Af r .Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

HOOD-SPREADING BY THE MAMBAS OF THE AFRICAN GENUS

DENDROASPIS Schlegel

CHARLES R.S. PITMAN

Hood-spreading by the Cobras of the Asian and African genus
Naia Laurenti is a well-known characteristic, but it is only those
accustomed to handling Mambas or familiar with these relatively large
snakes in the wild state who realise that all species of Mambas are
capable of demonstrating what compared with Cobras can be described
as a modified hood. A variety of reasons, such as excitement, alarm,
annoyance, anger, intimidation, contemplated aggression or to deter
have been suggested and it is unquestionable that at times this
behaviour constitutes a threat, but C.J.P. Ionides who has handled
more Mambas (mainly Green Mambas) - thousands - than anyone else is
of the opinion that this demonstration, which certainly seems often
in the nature of a threat, does not necessarily signify impending
attack. Much depends on circumstances and on the temperament of the
individual .

To be able to spread a hood, a snake is dependent on its ability
to make use of the anterior ribs to flatten or expand the neck; but
hood-spreading has nothing in common with and is quite distinct from
neck inflation or distension - this is not mechanical, but simply air
controlled.

From my own considerable experience of African Cobras, with spe¬
cial reference to the Black-lipped or Black-and-White Cobra, Naj a
melanoleuca Hallowell I am inclined to believe that in some cases
curiosity is apt to prompt hood-spreading. This particular Cobra I
have always found to be highly intelligent and in captivity soon
recognises those who look after it to the extent that on one’s approach
it would invariably rear up the anterior part of its body with spread
hood and flickering tongue. Examples of medium size used to be
brought to me in an old kettle suitably closed, but it was not until
I slowly raised the lid that I discovered what the receptacle contain¬
ed. If it happened to be a Black-and-White Cobra up came an inquisi¬
tive head with expanded hood and then I gently but firmly replaced the
lid without any reaction on the part of the snake except quietly to
withdraw below.

I describe this species as exhibiting a definite degree of insol¬
ence, possibly exaggerated self-confidence, but it is not aggressive.
Can one attribute the habitual hood-spreading of the Indian Cobra,

Naia tripudians Merr. to excitement or what?.

But, from the evidence available, in the cases of the four species
of African Mambas - the Black Mamba, Dendroaspis polylepis Gunther;
the Green Mamba, Dendroaspis angusticeps (Smith) ; Jameson T s Mamba,
Dendroaspis jamesoni (Traill); and the West African Green Mamba,
Dendroaspis viridis Hallowell - hood-spreading seems generally to
denote annoyance or anger or even threat.

110

Hood-spreading by the Mambas

(1) Rose (195b) has an ingenious theory, which merits serious
consideration, that hood-spreading is of definite and important sur¬
vival value as it makes the vulnerable neck less accessible to a
predator.

In Ionides' experience, judged from a considerable number of Black
Mambas, hood-spreading, either modified or pronounced, is fairly
frequent; very rare indeed in the Green Mamba and not observed until
he had handled several thousands of these snakes; and evidently not an
uncommon trait in the numbers of Jameson1 s Mambas he has caught.

According to Broadley ( in litt . ) , the Black Mamba frequently
demonstrates by spreading a slight hood, which the Green Mamba resorts
to very rarely; and whereas the Black Mamba is likely to indulge in a
lot of threatening gaping, this the Green Mamba practically never does.

With reference to the West African Green Mamba, a correspondent
(D.H. Barry) in Ghana writes that he has never seen D. viridis spread
a hood while being captured, but three or four examples, when newly
caught and caged have been seen to do this if disturbed and annoyed,
but usually stop doing so in a day or two.

The Boomslang, Dispholidus typus (Smith) , which in some respects
resembles the Green Mamba, has a characteristic and convincing threat
display with a conspicuous inflation of the throat and part of the
anterior portion of the body, and certain authorities and field
observers have claimed that the Black Mamba will on occasion do like¬
wise - a claim which has been arbitrarily refuted by others. The fact
that some authorities have not witnessed this does not necessarily
mean that it cannot happen; instances will be quoted. Ionides does
not recollect ever having seen the Black Mamba or any other Mamba do
this, but at least twice I have seen a Jameson’s Mamba when lying
amongst the scrubby undergrowth in the Botanic Gardens at Entebbe,
Uganda, inflate its throat and a few inches of its body, like the
Boomslang, when mobbed by small birds.

Another feature of Black Mamba behaviour, which may or may not
coincide with hood-spreading, is a fearsome demonstration by opening
the mouth very wide and shaking the head from side to side, usually
culminating in a strike. As this strike is accompanied by a loud hiss
it is reasonable to suggest that at the same time some inflation of
the throat is possible.

Myles Turner, a member of the Tanganyika National Parks staff in
Western Serengeti (in litt . ) emphasises how, when on the alert, a
Black Mamba dilates and pulsates its throat, which seems to suggest a
certain degree of inflation.

Rose (1955) quotes Noble who asserts that the Mamba distends its
throat in a similar manner as the Boomslang, which (2) Broadley (1956)
categorically states is incorrect. But (3) Shaw (1956) challenges
Broadley and describes how a large Black Mamba which had been disturbed
by his dog (which was bitten and died) suddenly reared up about twelve
feet distant. "This snake had definitely inflated its throat, and it
looked like a dirty tennis ball topped by a very angry head. There was

definitely no hood . The snake moved off up a grade with its throat

still inflated and held four feet above the ground.” When the snake
reached some tall grass it deflated and disappeared. In a locality
where there were many Black Mambas this was Shaw’s only nasty experience

111

J. E.Af r.Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

during a period of 37 years.

Ionides has observed that the male and female Black Mamba alike
indulge in hood-spreading. He has on several occasions noticed a
slight spread and at least four times has seen a pronounced hood
once when he came across a male Mamba unexpectedly in fairly long grass
and it raised its head about a foot off the ground and spread a so
pronounced hood that he had to look again to make sure it was not a
Cobra. Another time a female on the ground which started to make off
on being followed "raised nearly two feet of herself off the ground
and spread a hood as large as that of the male just described;" this
female having looked intently at Ionides a short time advanced delib¬
erately towards him and entered an intervening small patch of grass.
Ionides withdrew a few paces and watched as she raised her head with
spread hood and looked at him from the grass. She was definitely ill-
tempered and when caught it was seen that she had recently sloughed.

The third time, a female Black Mamba in the top of a small mango tree
was pelted with sticks until she was forced down. Understandably "she
seemed annoyed as she spread a modified hood and kept darting her
tongue out". More recently - a fourth time - a female Black Mamba,
which had been ejected from its lair in a hole in the ground, immedi¬
ately spread a hood as she endeavoured to avoid capture. In the
collection of the Zoological Society of London, at Regent’s Park, the
Black Mamba has often been seen to spread a modified hood when
disturbed or annoyed but the Green Mamba rarely does so and usually
only when first released from a travelling case.

There are a number of published records some doubtless not
original, about hood-spreading by Black Mambas. According to (4)
Ditmars (1931) "The anterior ribs are slightly elongated and can expand
or flatten the neck to a slight extent. I have noticed this when they
are intently watching something and are nervously alert, yet stirred
to anger" - an interesting combination of reactions; intent, alert and
anger. (5) F.W. Fitzsimon’s (1932) description is dramatic, "when
angered, the throat, and sometimes the anterior portion of the body,
is inflated, and at the same time the reptile sways ominously from
side to side, gracefully, but with deadly portent." This sounds more
like Boomslang behaviour than hood-spreading.

In African Wild Life (1959) there are two illustrations, dorsally
and ventrally, taken at the Transvaal Museum by (6) Brain, showing a
slight hood. Brain states that to flatten a hood is part of a threat
display and that it is both intimidatory and a deterrent. Mouth-opening
coincident with hood-spreading he also records "When approached in its
glass -fronted cage, the Mamba would repeatedly flatten its neck, often
opening its mouth to some extent at the same time. On no occasion
were we able to observe inflation of the neck as has been described
by Rose (1955) and Shaw (1956)."

(7) Broadley (1959) describes how a 12 foot Mamba when cornered
"reared up... spread a broad ’hood’ and opened its mouth, displaying
the black interior and formidable fangs."

(8) Sweeney (1961) refers to the loose skin around the neck "which
can be expanded into a swelling similar to that of the boomslang but
considerably smaller, and the ribs are raised to stretch the skin as in
the cobra. The swelling is scarcely noticeable from most viewing
angles unless the snake is really excited, when quite a distinct cobra¬
like hood appears for a second or two." This seems to suggest that a

112

Hood-spreading by the Mambas

degree of throat inflation may be combined with rudimentary hood-spread
ing.

(9) Isemonger (1962) adds to our knowledge "always ready to bite
if actually molested, at which time they usually expand a very modified
hood, open their mouths wide and hiss with a rather deep, hollow-sound¬
ing noise." Isemonger has caught and handled large numbers of Black
Mambas .

(10) Vivian F.M. FitzSimons (1962), also with much practical
experience, records somewhat similarly "when really angered the neck

is distended to form quite a noticeable hood - though not so pronounced
as in the cobras - and an ominous, hollow-sounding hiss is often
emitted before doubling back the neck." The reference of both
Isemonger and FitzSimons to "hollow-sounding" does seem to indicate
some possible degree of throat inflation.

(11) Villiers (1963), quoting from the observations of others I
suspect, and referring generally to Mambas, records that when angry
they dilate the neck and the anterior part of the body.

(12) Broadley (1963) further refers to an eight foot D, polylepis
which reared up through some foliage with hood spread.

In the Samburu Game Reserve, in Kenya, (13) F. Seed (1964) watched
a Harrier Eagle persistently attacking an 8 foot Black Mamba which
"inflated" its neck (it is possible this refers to hood-spreading
C.R.S.P.) each time it tried to escape.

There is little to add to what I have already mentioned about hood
spreading by the Green Mamba, D, anqusticeps except to say that with
the exception of Broadley none of the authorities just quoted seem to
have observed this. John Tigwell has provided a unique photograph,
reproduced with his kind permission, showing well the exceedingly rare
hood display of the Green Mamba, which Ionides in his vast experience
has but rarely observed. Ionides, on at least seven occasions, has
seen examples of Jameson* s Mamba, out of the 77 he has handled, spread
a hood. /

There is nothing to add to what I have already recorded about
D. viridis. An attempt to take a picture of the hood of a large male
Jameson’s Mamba was a failure, as the photographer - not a snake man -
was reluctant to approach his subject close enough to ensure success,
thereby a splendid opportunity being lost. Some good photographs of
hood-spreading by D. polylepis in captivity have been taken by N.P.
Mitton and thanks to his kindness it is possible to reproduce views of
this display from above and below (a large male); from this latter
aspect there does not appear to be any throat distension as in the
Boomslang, D, typus .

I am greatly indepted to C.J.P. Ionides for a
tion about the behaviour of East African Mambas in
also to Mr. R. Lamworn, the Senior Overseer of the
Regent’s Park, for observations on Mamba behaviour

wealth of informa-
the wild state, and
Reptile House at
in captivity.

113

J.E.Afr.Nat.Hist.Soc.

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

Summary

1. All four species of African Mambas have been known to spread a
modified hood, which sometimes may be pronounced.

2. Two species, D. polylepis and D. iamesoni. have also been
observed to distend the neck like Dispholidus typus.

3. Hood-spreading behaviour is discussed.

References .

(1) ROSE, W. Snakes - mainly South African, 1955.

(2) D.C.B. (D.G. Boadley) . Review, in African Wild Life 10 (1) 1956.

(3) SHAW, R.D. 'Mamba encounter'. African Wild Life 10 (2) 1956.

(4) DITMARS, R.L. Snakes of the World, 1931.

(5) FITZSIMONS, F.W. Snakes, 1932.

(6) BRAIN, C.K. 'The Hood of the Mamba'. African Wild Life 13 (1)

1959.

(7) BROADLEY, D.G. The Herpetology of Southern Rhodesia, Part I,

Snakes, 1959.

(8) SWEENEY, R.C.H. Snakes of Nyasaland, 1961.

(9) ISEMONGER , R.M. Snakes of Africa, 1962.

(10) FITZSIMONS, V.F.M. Snakes of Southern Africa, 1962.

(11) VILLIERS, A. Les Serpents de l'Ouest Africain, 1963.

(12) BROADLEY, D.G. Journal. Herpetoloqical Association of Rhodesia,

March 1963.

(13) IRWIN, Tony. "The New Look Safari'.' Af ricana 1 (9), March 1964.

D. anqust iceps spreading hood
Photographed at Newala by J.TIGWELL

(Received 26th October 1964)

114

Hood-spreading by the Mambas

D. P. polylepis spreading hood
Photo by N.P.MITTON

D. P. polylepis spreading hood
Photographed near Loitokitok by N. P.MITTON

lib

J. E.Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

NOTES ON TWO EAST AFRICAN VENOMOUS SNAKE POPULATIONS -
ECHIS CARINATUS PYRAMIDUM (Geoffroy) , EGYPTIAN SAW-SCALED VIPER
AND VIPERA HINDU Boulenger, MONTANE VIPER.

C.J.P. IONIDES and CHARLES R.S. PITMAN.

Opportunities for intensive regional snake study are unfortunately
rare, but when possible the results can be surprising. The density of
a population is dependent on environment and climate and, most impor¬
tant, on food supply.

For a number of years Ionides (see Puku 4, in press) has been
engaged in the intensive collection of two highly venomous species of
snakes Dendroaspis anqusticeps (A. Smith) , Green Mamba and Bitis q.
qabonica (Dumeril and Bibron) . Central African Gaboon Viper in southern
Tanganyika and with occasional excursions to the southern extremity of
Lake Tanganyika for Boulenqerina annulata stormsi Dollo, Tanganyika
Water Cobra. He has also visited the arid Northern Frontier region of
Kenya for Echis and Kenya !s Aberdare highlands for Vipera hindii
Boulenger.

His carefully compiled records inevitably create the impression
that snake-catching, even of large deadly species, is just too easy,
but what is really impressive is the extent of populations in these
localities; their abundance can be astonishing.

Ionides has a rigid rule that no one but himself is allowed to
tackle a deadly species - a wise precaution - thus obviating the possi¬
bility of unfortunate incidents to others. He has had many misadven¬
tures with poisonous species, but he has never had an accident to
himself in the course of catching operations, and the only time an
African was bitten - luckily not fatally - was through misunderstanding
an order.

Generous rewards provide the necessary information and then direct
action is the responsibility of Ionides who, however, always has
available African assistance, adept through long experience. Success¬
fully handling deadly species is scarcely an acquired art, it is
inherent, and Ionides is a master of his craft.

ECHIS CARINATUS PYRAMIDUM (Geoffroy), Egyptian Saw-scaled Viper.

DESCRIPTION: This is a relatively small snake, rarely attaining a

length of two feet, which has a somewhat slender cylindrical body
and on the head the typical viper scalation of imbricate, keeled
scales .

The colour is light or dull brown with fairly large dark edged
spots, and paler below, and a wavy yellowish flank line.

A ^ measuring 23!£ ins. (tail 2'4 ins.) - the largest collected -
had a girth of 2 Yq ins. and weighed 90 grammes.

116

Two East African Snake Populations

According to Ionides (in litt.) none of the Echis carinatus bore
resemblance in bodily shape to a Puff Adder, all being much more slender,
although the local Samburu in the Northern Frontier Province seemed to
think that Echis are $ Puff Adders, and they call both these snakes
by the same name ndurububwa which suggests an onomatopoeic origin,
the Puff Adder being differentiated as the large ndurububwa. It is
worth mentioning that in some parts of Nigeria Echis is believed to be
the young of the Puff Adder, and in one vernacular it is called kububua
which bears a certain resemblance to its Samburu name. At a rough
guess the average length of the numerous adult Echis he captured was
about 17 inches.

Breeding. During the three days 16th, 19th and 20th August 1961 eight
juveniles (2 dtf, 6 9$) were captured, but during the four days 16th to
18th February 1962 no small juveniles were seen; they had presumably
all grown up. On 20th August 1961 in two separate localities a pair
was found coiled together, and again in August/September 1962 on four
occasions a cf and 0 were found beneath the same log. Yet it seems
from the results of another trip Ionides made in fourteen days during
August-September 1962, when out of 218 captured, no less than 113 were
juveniles under 10 inches (and at least another bO juveniles were seen
but not taken) , that August-September is the season for Echis bearing
young.

Food . No stomachs were examined in August 1961 or February 1962 as all
specimens caught were sent away alive, but on 17th February an adult
when captured disgorged a partially digested, unidentifiable lizard.
Small rodents are said to be common. Over one hundred stomachs examined
in August-September 1962 indicated that in this region lizards - 12
specimens each had a Southern Long-tailed Lizard, Latastia longicaudata
revoili (Vaillant) in its stomach, one contained a Savanna Variable
Skink, Mabuya varia varia (Peters) and in another unidentified lizard
remains - are perhaps the main item in its diet. Two others contained
unidentified rodent remains, and one had consumed a scorpion (this has
also been recorded in India).

Ectoparas ites . None were found.

T emperament . Very quick and active when disturbed. Every specimen
taken made determined efforts to bite when caught. Ionides draws
particular attention to a very characteristic attitude when on the
defensive, the body being placed in a sort of C shaped coil. This pose
is very frequently adopted by an angry Echis and might even help to
identify it.

Corkill (1: 2bb) refers to this "habit of coiling to a flank with
the head threatening to the front" which has inspired one of its vernac¬
ular names in the Sudan, i.e. Urn frenaib (Arabic £jenab , meaning ’side’).
Also, Cansdale (2: b2) "It has a peculiar way of coiling ready for
attack; the main part of the body is held in a wide curve, with the
neck doubled back."

Habitat . Semi-desert "nyika", with dry low thorny bushes and small,
flat-topped, acacia thorn trees, Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne. The
region in which this collecting was done is about 3,000 ft above sea
level .

Habits . Nocturnal. The majority were found beneath or inside rotting
Acacia tortilis logs. When disturbed, many demonstrated with a "side¬
winding" motion, at the same time rubbing their saw scales together

117

J. E.Afr. Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

and thus producing a remarkably loud and threatening noise. Not all
1 rustled* when caught, but the majority did. When annoyed, the head
and anterior part of the body is sometimes slightly raised and pointing
towards the object threatened, while the posterior part of the body
moves from side to side, producing a loud bustling'. The strike is
delivered and the head immediately returns to the original posture. But
more often the strike is effected from the previously described station¬
ary C shaped coil (or lateral loop) position. Ionides did not notice
in any case that the anterior part of the body was inflated prior to
striking and certainly not markedly so. But on several occasions the
strike was so vigorous that the snake appeared to jump forward and
upwards (mainly forward). Neither he, nor yet a National Parks Warden
who was with him, ever heard Echis hiss, though the loud ’rustling’
could render a hiss inaudible. When held by the neck this viper tries
to use its fangs by depressing the head, but not by turning it. Owing
to the relativly slender neck, it is much easier to hold than
Atractaspis (burrowing viper) . It should be held by the nape so that
the mouth is forced open, for it is when the head is held too far on
the neck that it will attempt to embed the fangs in one’s finger, by
depressing its head as Atractaspis does.

Ionides also mentions that in Northern Darfur, in the Sudan, in
1946, he collected a viper which he believed was an Echis , with part
of the body buried in the sand-. During his third collecting trip to
the Northern Frontier Province of Kenya in August-September 1962, he
found two Echis almost entirely buried in sand and several partially
buried, but all were also under Acacia logs.

Method of collecting. Ionides was assisted by a couple of Europeans
and a number of Africans who scattered and searched, turning over any
logs they could find. When a snake was discovered Ionides was called
to catch it.

On 16th August 1961, when in a car, a dead snake, an Echis , was
observed on the road and an immediate search in the vicinity resulted
in the capture of six specimens in about three-quarters of an hour.

Population . Judging from the results of his first two very brief
expeditions, one of three days (41 snakes), the other four days (52
snakes) collecting respectively at different times of the year in three
separate localities, and a third of a fortnight's duration (218),
there must be an abundance of Echis in the regions visited - especially
those localities which produced as many as 39, 38 and 32 respectively
in one day. A. Duff-Mackay and Jonathan Leakey (in litt.) during the
periods 27th October to 11th December, 1962 and 7th January to 13th
March 1963 collected alive - the majority eventually released - a
total of 6,933 Echis carinatus.

These figures are not so remarkable as would at first appear, for
according to Wall (3: 49) Echis carinatus is extremely abundant in
parts of what was formerly North-West India (prior to partition) and
he refers to its prodigious numbers elsewhere in India as furnished by
Vidal (3; 49). In the "Ratnag iri District alone during six years
Government rewards were paid on an average of 225,721 Phoorsas (the

vernacular name for Echis ) per annum” - ’’when the Government reward

was raised tentatively from six pies to two annas per head, 115,921
were paid for in 8 days (December 2nd to 10th, 1862)". Again, Candy
(3: 49) says that in Ratnagiri, in August and September, "the Mhars go
out with long sticks to which forks are attached and catch them in

118

Two East African Snake Populations

thousands for Government rewards.”

According to Dr. J.R.H. Pasqual ( in litt . ) , at Makurdi, in the
Benue Valley, in Eastern Nigeria, in woodland savanna, Echis carinatus
is also abundant, and hundreds were killed in the course of grass-
slashing within the Government station. Grass grew rapidly in com¬
pounds, when officers were away on tour for a week or a fortnight, and
they would then be found to harbour two or three dozen Echis .

Of the initial 93 Ionides captured, 39 or 42 per cent were eft? and
54 or 58 per cent gg. But according to the season the ratio of sexes
taken varies considerably'. During the three days in August 1961, in a
total of 41, 14 were eft? and 27 gg, i.e. twice as many go as eft?; also,
only 15 were adult, and in addition, 9 were fair size, 9 half-grown
and 8 juveniles. On the other hand, the 52 examples collected on four
days in February are, with one fair size exception, adult. In August
1961 the maximum catch on one day totalled 32, and in February, 23.
During the period 25th August to 7th September 1962, the sex ratio of
the 218 specimens captured was 78 eft? and 140 gg, disparity which
Ionides is unable to explain. But it confirms what has already been
noted at this time of the year that the gg to eft? are in the ratio of
about two to one. Also, at this time of rhe year there is a preponder¬
ance of subadults and juveniles, for out of the 218 taken only 35 were
fully adult, 70 were subadult and half grown (all over 10 inches) and
113 were juveniles under 10 inches. Ionides suggests that Echis
probably attains adult size within six months, which would account for
his February catch being almost entirely adult, in contrast to the very
high proportion of juveniles and subadults taken in August - September.

Climate . Despite the intense heat which prevailed from about 9.0 a.m.
till sundown, a strong cold wind blew from sundown till 9.0 a.m. or
even later.

General . Owing to its exceptional size it is worth mentioning that in
the course of searching for Echis , a g Bitis arietans arietans (Merrem)
was caught which measured 5 ft 1% ins. (tail aVa ins), girth 12^ ins.,
and weighed (empty) 13 lbs. 4 ozs. Before weighing, a partially
digested adult Springhaas or Jumping Hare, Pedetes surdaster Thomas
was squeezed out of her stomach. In the course of the seven days
intensive collecting when 93 Echis were obtained only two Puff Adders
were found. Later, during a further fourteen days hard collecting,
when 218 Echis were collected and at least another 50 seen but not
taken, only two juvenile and two adult Puff Adders were found. One an
adult, a g, measuring 37 ins., was taken from the stomach of a 72^ ins
c? , Common Spitting Cobra, Naja niqricollis Reinhardt.

In Kenya, and in Nigeria, wherever Echis is abundant the Puff
Adder is uncommon or rare. Conversely, in a region of Northern
Nigeria where Echis is scarce, a European snake-catcher - for commer¬
cial purposes - was, in 1937, said to be collecting 40,000 Puff Adders
a month, none less than 4 feet long.

VIPERA HINDU Boulenger, Montane Viper.

Description . Small and slender with cylindrical body, and rarely
attaining a length much in excess of 12 inches. Ionides1 largest, a
g, measured 13 ins., (tail 1.35 ins.). Head scalation typically viper,

119

J. E. Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Vo 1 . XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

with strongly keeled imbricate scales. Dull brown, with darker spots
along the back and flanks, the general coloration blending well with
the blackish soil on which it is found. Greyish below, speckled
darker.

Breeding . Little is known about its breeding, though in the course of
two brief expeditions (one in August and the other in February) very
small juveniles were found in February, but in August all specimens
taken were of good size.

Food. An adult 9 taken on the 4th August 1961 had recently swallowed
a fair sized Kenya Side-striped Chameleon, Chamaeleo bitaeniatus
schubotzi Sternfeld. Lizards, which are not uncommon, are also preyed
on. A half-grown 9, taken on 7th February 1962, was forced to dis¬
gorge a frog - species not identified. Specimens in captivity took
frogs freely. Pitman fed one on new born mice.

Ectoparasites . None recorded.

Temperament . Irascible and very ready to try to bite if interfered
with, though inclined to be sluggish. None were actually found in a
state of torpor, though one would imagine that in these bleak highlands
these little vipers for two-thirds of every 24 hours are likely to be
in a state of suspended animation.

Habitat . Moorland at high altitudes - 9,300 - 11,000 ft above the
forest line, amongst huge tussocks of the fine, tufty grass Andropogon
dummeri Stapf, and the coarse, tufty grass Andropogon amethystinus
Steud. , as well as among the low, thick, shrubby Alchemilla argyro-
phylla Oliv. .

Habits . Usually found coiled up close to a tussock of grass, but may
be found actually in a tussock, or, if the ground is warmish, on bare
ground between tussocks, and sometimes in the scrub. Seen during
periods of weak sunshine, or sometimes when no sun was visible if the
ground was fairly warm. Some were in rather marshy ground, others
where the ground was fairly dry. They are really only active and
readily noticed during optimum conditions - which are few and far bet¬
ween - of maximum warm sunshine between about 10.0 a.m. and 4.0 p.m.

Method of collecting. Climatic conditions permitted but brief visits
to this normally inclement highland region, and only limited African
assistance was available. However, generous rewards produced good
results, though careful search of the limitless tangle of tussocks is
most arduous. Where there had been a grass ( i . e . tussuck) burn the
task was easier. This viper can be held by the tail without risk of
the holding hand being bitten, which cannot be done with Echis .

Population . In the course of two brief visits to Kenya’s Aberdare
Mountains, from 2nd to 7th August 1961 (and 23rd August) and 7th to
13th February 1962, 74 of these little vipers were collected. Ionides
believes that this viper may become adult in a year. Of these 29 or
40 per cent, were dd and 45 or 60 per cent 99. 51 or 70 per cent,
were adult. The sex ratio of 10 fair size (5 d.5 9) and 13 half-grown
(7 d. 6 9) is even.

The proportion of adults in the total captures respectively in
August (total 25, adult 17) and in February (total 49, adult 34), each
70 per cent., does not vary from that of the grand total. But the sex

120

Two East African Snake Populations

ratio of the adults taken was 7 dtf and 10 99 in August, and 10 dd1 and
24 99 in February, which may or may not be significant.

Of the grand total of 51 adults, twice as many 99 (34) were caught
as were dW (17). The most taken in any one day was 23, on 11th Febru¬
ary. Sixty per cent were caught before 1.30 p.m., a number of
specimens were taken after 4.0 p.m., and some as late as 5.25 p.m..

Climate. In Auqust , weather conditions were predominantly cloudy with
periods of mist and light drizzle, and occasional intervals of weak
sunshine. In February, conditions were better with much strong morning
sunshine and mild or strong cold winds, also at times a good deal of
cloud, and one wet afternoon. But it can be very hot, too, in September

Conclusions

It would appear, from the evidence available, that the populations
of these two East African venomous species, each with distinctive
habits and frequenting a strikingly divergent habitat, are far more
extensive than mere casual acquantance is likely to indicate, and
IonidesT catching operations conducted in strictly limited localities
have thrown fresh light on a problem about which little is known; but
it is probable that only a small proportion of the actual population
was ever seen.

In Uganda, too, in Pitman Ts experience many snake populations are
far more plentiful than one would credit, and in localities where one
but occasionally sees a snake by chance, the incentive of an adequate
reward will produce remarkable results.

Acknowledgments .

Our grateful thanks are due to many, and especially to F.W. Woodley,
Warden, Mountain National Parks of Kenya, for his valuable assistance
on the expeditions to collect Echis carinatus and Vipera hindii; Miss
A.G.C. Grandison of the British Museum (Natural History) for having
read through this paper and for her advice; Dr. J.R.H. Pasqual, for
his information about Nigeria; to a host of willing Africans without
whose help little would have been achieved; and to all those others who
contributed in many ways.

References .

(1) CORKILL, N.L. "Snake Stories from Kordofan". Sudan Notes and

Records . Vol. XVIII, Pt . 2, 1935.

(2) CANSDALE, G.S. Reptiles of West Africa, Penquin Books, West

African Series, 1955.

(3) WALL, Major F. The Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our British

Indian Dominions and How to Recognise them, 1907.

(4) PUKU , No. 3. The Occasional Papers of the Department of Game and

Fisheries, Northern Rhodesia.

(Received 28th August, 1964)

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Vo 1. XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

OBSERVATIONS ON GUNTHER’S GARTER OR CORAL SNAKE,
ELAPSOIDEA SUNDEVALII GUNTHER I Loveridge

JAMES ASHE

This is a small Elapid snake, which seldom grows over 2 feet in
length, though occasionally specimens are taken over that size. In
colour it is commonly blue-black with pairs of narrow white bars run¬
ning round the dorsal part of the body. Sometimes the two white bars
enclose a red, orange or yellow one. The stomach is a pearly grey.

The head is not very distinct from the neck, the nose horizontally
chisel-shaped, and the eyes small.

Gunther’s Garter Snake moves in short sharp bursts, remaining
perfectly still between each such burst. One has been observed stalk¬
ing a frog in this manner, and the last lap of this movement terminated
in a very fast strike at the frog. The frog in question was very much
too large for the snake to have eaten. Stalking, however, is not the
only way a Garter Snake is able to get its food. One in captivity
actually caught a frog in mid-jump at a height of about four inches
above the floor level of the cage.

The diet of the Garter Snake is very interesting. A. Loveridge -
"A Guide to the Snakes of the Nairobi District’,’ J„EaAfr.NataHist.Soc.
Volo XVIII, 3 & 4, p. 97 (1945), reprinted March 1962. Page 17 ( 1 ) -
records lizards eggs, and a skink has been removed from the stomach of
one that was killed on the roadc The skink was very much reduced by
digestion, but it appeared to be a Riopa spa

Several times I have experimented by placing a number of different
reptiles in the cage with Elapsoidea , and have found they show a
marked preference for small snakes, of which Aparallactus and
Lycophidion seem to head the list of preferences. They, however,
would not take a very young Dasypeltis scaber Linn.

When Elapsoidea takes a small snake, it usually gets a firm grip
on the middle of its prey, and slowly chews towards the head, quite
heedless of the bites it receives, and finally swallowing it head
first. It must be fairly venom-proof, as when one found its way into
a cage containing a Spitting Cobra - Naja niqricollis Reinhardt - it
received a bite from a four foot specimen. It bled from the nose for
over a week, but now, over two months after the incident, it is still
alive and in quite good shape.

Other snakes seem to be aware of the snake eating tendencies of
Elapsoidea , as once when I placed one in a cage full of Sand-Snakes,
Psammophis sp. , they became greatly alarmed, and remained much agi¬
tated for some time.

Some authorities say that after a short time in captivity the
Elapsoidea becomes trusting and mild. This should not be taken
seriously, as the following observations refer to a snake which I have
had for some long time and first appears in my records on 4.6.62. but
was captured well before that date. Other authorities maintain

122

Gunther’s Garter Snake

that the Garter or Coral Snake cannot open its mouth wide enough to
admit any portion of a human body. The marks at present on the top
joint of my index finger, and the scores on the nail, adequately beli
this .

Summary of observations on a bite by Elapsoidea sundevalii quntheri.

Weight
Length
Phase
Condition
Last fed

Venom

6b. 4 gms .

64 cms.

White.

Good, but a little thin.

About 2.6,64. Therefore well stocked with
venom.

Neurotoxic .

James Ashe - Bitten - at 5.1b p.m, on 6.8,64.

159 lbs.

39,

5 ft. 10 ins.

Good,

Bitten by Spitting Cobra about 18 months
earlier. Ineffectual bite, one fang only,
the symptoms were slight. A number of bites
from non Elapid snakes of low potency.
Immunity can be considered negligible.

When replacing the Garter Snake in its case it bit the ball of
my forefinger, striking and holding with boths fangs. Not wishing to
injure the snake, I lowered it to the ground and removed it. It was
thus able to give me a full bite. I made a shallow cut and for a
very short time sucked the wound, but realising that little was known
of the bite of this snake, and also that it was unlikely to be danger
ous , stopped sucking and took notes of the result.

Weight

Age

Height

Health

Immunity

5.15 p.m. Bitten, fang marks 7.5 mm. apart. Right index finger

above top joint. The effect of the bite was immediate;
a tingling sensation moved up the back of the hand, and
a slight pain was felt in the forefinger and the lower
joint of the second finger. The pain left the site of
the bite at -

5.29 p.m. But was conscious of pain at elbow. By this time the

finger was very stiff; had insufficient control of the
right arm to be able to write clearly; Mr. Norman Mitto
continued the account.

5.34 p.m. Discomfort felt at armpit.

6.10 p.m. Rode 7 miles home on motor-cycle and on arrival took a

hot bath. No change in condition until -

7.30 p.m.

A check
Finger,
intense

showed the following: -
dull pain. Slight pain
when arm was moved.

in armpit which became

123

J.E.Afr.Nat.Hist.Soc.

Vo 1 . XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

8.00 p.m. Right armpit appeared only half as deep as left; gland

was very much swollen. Pulse in two counts - 86 and 89.
Dull pain and severe throbbing in finger. Forearm
normal, but upper arm very painful if touched. No appar
ent change in pupils. Breathing normal.

8.30 p.m. Acute pain in finger, also in upper arm and armpit when

coughing, although swelling seemed to have subsided
slightly .

9.00 p.m.
10.00 p.m.
11.00 p.m.
7.8.64.
7.10 a . m .

No change.

Armpit slightly more painful.

No change, and a good nights’ sleep.

On waking conscious of pain in finger and armpit.

1.30 p.m. Forefinger and armpit slightly swollen and still

painful .

11.30 p.m. No change but a feeling of discomfort rather than of

pain .

8.8.64.

7.30 a.m. Site of bite just a little tender, slight stiffness in

first finger. Observations discontinued.

The only other reference I can find of a bite from Elapsoidea
appears on page 33, para. (5) of "Snakes of Southern Africa', 1 by
V.F.M. FitzSimons, Purnell, Cape Town - 1962., which reads as follows
"Contrary to the moderate swelling following after bites of Elapid
snakes, a young European male experienced considerable pain and swell¬
ing, which extended from the site of the bite on the forefinger into
the upper arm and armpit."

I, however, did not experience intense pain unless the arm was
moved. The venom was very quick in its action, and the rapidity with
which it spread was alarming. Although my arm was not unduly pain¬
ful, I was unable to write after a very short time, which would seem
to suggest that the venom secreted by Elapsoidea is potent.

In view of the experience described above, I would consider that
a bite from this snake should not be taken lightly, particularly in
the case of children.

(Received 8th. September 1964)

124

■

J. E.Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

A TRIP TO AL ABER, QUATI STATE, HADRAMAUT ,

EASTERN ADEN PROTECTORATE.

C.J.P. IONIDES and C„ ORME-SMITH

The objectives of the trip were to collect specimens of Cerastes
cerastes (Linnaeus), the Desert Horned-Viper , and of Echis coloratus
Gunther, the Arabian Saw-scaled Viper.

The habitat of both these snakes is desert, and in the case of
the latter, semi-desert also. A1 Aber is a fort in the Arabian Desert
about 330 miles in a northerly direction from Mukalla which is on the
coast, and 300 miles north-east of Aden itself. It is at an altitude
of 3,300 feet. The area consists of isolated stony hills, sand, lava
rocks and, in places, a certain amount of low scrub and coarse grass.
There is no cultivation.

We reached A1 Aber in the afternoon on the 17th April, 1965. As
soon as we arrived we asked the Bedouin to spread the news among the
encampments in the area that we wanted news of any snakes seen. Pro¬
vided the snakes were not molested in any way, we promised that a
substantial reward would be paid for any such information which
resulted in the capture of the specimen.

Early in the morning of the 18th, we started off in a Landrover
from A1 Aber to make a round of the Bedouin encampments. We hoped to
pick up news of our quarry. At the first of these encampments news
was actually brought while we were drinking coffee with the Arabs. A
snake had been found in the near vicinity. We went to the place and
found a large adult male Cerastes coiled up among small dark stones.

He was captured at 7.40 a.m. and proved to be the largest of the
species we were able to collect during our stay in Al Aber. He was
21% ins. long, had a girth of 3 ins., and a tail of 3^ ins. We con¬
tinued the round but found that the news had not yet reached most of
the encampments.

On our way back to the fort we decided to make a search amongst
some small rocks on the side of the hill. We turned over many of the
rocks and discovered a male snake beneath one. He made off and hid
beneath another rock but was then captured. This species we have not
yet identified, but it is a back-fanged snake and although in no way
related to the Cerastes , its coloration of warm sand brown marked
irregularly with darker brown was surprisingly similar in general
effect. It also had a conspicuous dark round spot behind each eye.

On the 19th the round was made again. A fair sized Cerastes
female was taken in open rocky shale at 8 a.m. We dug an adult male
from under sand at 9.10 a.m. He was very angry and rustled loudly
when we caught him. This rustling is made by rubbing the strongly
keeled scales together while the snake is in a tightly coiled position.
Both Cerastes and Echis do this as a warning demonstration.

On the following day we secured two further specimens of Cerastes ;
a female taken in sand at 7.55 a.m. and a male in a similar habitat
fifteen minutes later.

125

A Trip to A1 Aber

On the morning of the 21st we were lucky enough to take our first
Echis coloratus. He was a large male of 28 ins. in length which we
found in a rocky area at 8.45 a.m. whilst he was still on the move.
Within five minutes of this success we discovered another E, coloratus,
this one a female lying under a rock. Our bag of Cerastes was increas¬
ed by two specimens, namely a large male moving in sand at 7.40 a.m.
and within a few minutes a female was seen buried in the sand with only
her head visible. She was photographed by Mr. Orme-Smith in this
position and then collected. At about 9.55 a.m. a juvenile male snake
of the same species as the previous unidentified one, was taken on sand.

On the 22nd our first capture was made at 6.30 a.m. and our second
five minutes later. Both 'female Cerastes and both in a sandy area. At
6.40 a.m. also in sand, a male of the same species was taken. Two
hours later we collected a male of the unidentified species of back-
fanged snake. He was in a flat sandy area and spread a slight hood
when caught.

Following this capture, a strong wind arose which destroyed all
snake tracks. Probably as a result of this we failed to find any more
snakes that day. We left A1 Aber on the 23rd to return to Mukalla.

During our stay at Al Aber there had been sunny days interspersed
with very light drizzle. However, shortly before we arrived, there
had been rain, and the day we left we heard that it rained again. We,
ourselves were caught in heavy rain on the way back. We had found the
nights cool, and the days quite warm, but somewhat windy.

Of the ten Cerastes taken, four had a large erectile horn-like
scale over each eye. In the remaining six, this process was absent.

The approximate lengths of the vipers caught were as follows :-

cerastes

male

horned

705

cerastes

male

horned

660

cerastes

male

unhorned

560

cerastes

f emale

unhorned

480

cerastes

f emale

unhorned

460

cerastes

female

unhorned

450

cerastes

male

horned

440

cerastes

f emale

horned

440

cerastes

f emale

unhorned

410

cerastes

male

unhorned

390

coloratus

male

711

coloratus

f emale

570

C. cerastes is clearly nocturnal in habit. During the day-time
it lies up under sand, often with only the head protruding, or in the
shade of stones. Its normal method of progression is "side-winding",
which means that it moves at right angles to the direction in which
its head is pointing and appears to skid along the sand in this manner.
It moves with quite surprising speed. Fur was found in some of the
faeces indicating that at least part of its diet is mammalian. It is
a high spirited snake ready to defend itself if molested. Its sandy
colour and broken pattern make it difficult to see in it’s desert
habitat .

Judging by the two examples of E. coloratus taken, this species
is of a milder temperament than its more widespread relative E. carina-
tus . It may "side-wind" in the manner of Cerastes but does not always
do so. It occurs side by side with Cerastes in this area. It also

126

J. E.Afr.Nat .Hist .So c .

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

has the habit of rustling its scales as a warning as does E. carinatus.
Though not so aggressive as E. carinatus it is a high spirited snake
which is not prepared to stand any nonsense. It also has a sandy
colour which assimilates with its desert environment.

Both species of viper are highly venomous, probably the E. color-
atus is more so.

Beyond the fact that one specimen was caught among rocks and two
in sand no particular notes were taken of the unidentified snake.

Various species of lizard were common in the area which suggests
the likelihood that they form the large part of the food of all these
three snakes.

We are deeply indepted to Qaid J.W.G. Gray of the Hadrami Bedouin
Legion and to his wife, whose help, hospitality and kindness resulted
in a most successful trip. The charm and friendliness of the Bedouin
of Al Aber and of all the Arabs with whom we came in contact added
greatly to the pleasure and success of the trip.

(Received 7th May, 1965)

Desert Horned-Viper in its Natural Habitat.
Photos by C. ORME-SMITH

127

A Trip to A1 Aber

Cerastes cerastes

Echis coloratus

(Photos by N.P.MITTON)

128

J.E.Afr.Nat.Hist.Soc.

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

A SCINCID REPTILE FEEDING PRIMARILY ON MARINE CRUSTACEA,

WITH A NOTE ON ITS PARASITES

AoG. CANARIS & D.G. MURPHY

Thirty-nine skinks Ablepharus boutonii africanus (Sternfeld) a
sub species which reaches a length of approximately 4 % inches, were
analysed for food items and parasites. The animals were collected
during August 1963 and August 1964 from littoral rocks at Msambweni
and between Mida Creek and Blue Lagoon in Kenya. They appear to inhab
it rocky headlands. The greater number were observed on rocky faces
on the seaward side but some were seen on top of rock cliffs. The
skinks hunt their prey in crevices and holes in the rocks and in the
beach strand line at the base of the cliffs. They were not observed
to enter the water after prey but several which were placed in tide
pools swam rapidly on the surface.

Thirty of the thirty-nine skinks contained identifiable food
items in their stomachs or intestines. 90% of the items were marine
Crustacea. 63% were crab larvae of several species and all were in
the megalopa stage or older. 27% were marine gammarids. Only 6.4%
of the food items were insects. Table I summarizes the food item
analysis .

Fifteen of the skinks were parasitized by the mite Schoengastia
rubi rubi Vercammen-Grandj ean . The mites were found in the axilla and
ear.

Five skinks from the Msambweni site were infected with an unde r
mined species of liver fluke. Two species of flukes belonging to the
family Microphallidae were recovered from the intestines of the skinks
The microphallids are poorly represented in reptiles, but members
frequently parasitize shore birds. Both fluke species appeared to be
well adapted to the skink because the frequency of infection for both
was about 61% and most of the flukes were mature.

Crustaceans, in a marine environment, are the usual second inter¬
mediate hosts for microphallid flukes. Crustaceans were removed from
the stomachs of skinks and dissected. One gammarid harboured three
cysts of a microphallid fluke, but it was not possible to determine if
it was one of the two microphallid species parasitizing the skinks.
Twenty-five gammarids were collected from the skinks' habitat and
examined for fluke cysts but none were infected. Gammarids and crabs
probably act as second intermediate hosts for the two species of
microphallids harboured by the skinks.

The close association of the skink with a marine environment is
reflected in its diet, and, consequently, in its intestinal parasites.

129

A Reptile Feeding on Marine Crustacea

TABLE I:

Food items from the Stomach and Intestines of
Ablepharus boutonii africanus (Scincidae)

Gammarid Crab Diptera Coleoptera Hymenoptera

larva

Skinks with item

Number of items

Percent items

62.41

21 4

38 5

26.94 3.55

2.13

1.42

Collembola

Araneae Mysid

Polychaeta

Snail

Skinks with item

1 1

Number of items

1 1

Percent items

0.71

0.71 0.71

0.71

(Received on 27th January, 196b)

130

J.E.Afr.Nat.Hist.Soc.

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

NEW LEPIDOPTERA FROM EAST AFRICA

R.H. Carcasson

NYMPHALIDAE , LIMENITINAE

PSEUD AT HYMA NEPTIDINA Karsch, JACKSON 1 1 ssp, nov. (Figs. 1 & 2)

Differs from the nominate race in the much greater development of
the white discal markings in both wings above and below, in the absence
of dark nervular streaks in the white markings of the forewing and in
the reduction of the white streak in the fw cell. The sexes are simi¬
lar, the g being larger and more rounded.

This new subspecies was recently discovered in the Kakamega Forest
of western Kenya by Mr. T0HoE„ Jackson, the well known lepidopterist
and small series of both sexes were secured by him and by the author.

It is astonishing that such a conspicuous insect should have been over¬
looked for so long in a well collected area such as the Kakamega Forest,
and this may be due to it being a surprisingly accurate mimic of Nept is
striqata Aurivillius.

The nominate race is known from the Cameroons and from the Congo.
The only available East African record, other than the Kakamega speci¬
mens, is a d from the Bwamba Forest, Toro, W. Uganda, which agrees very
well with the figure of the type in Aurivillius, "Rhopalocera
Aethiopica", 1898.

Holotype d: Kakamega Forest, Kenya, XI-1964, R.Carcasson.

Allotype 9: same data as above. Holotype and Allotype to be deposited
in the British Museum (Natural History) „

d Paratypes 5, 9 Paratypes 2 : same data as above, in National Museum

(formerly Coryndon Museum) , Nairobi.

Note : since this description was written, I have been informed by
Mr. Jackson that the British Museum have a d of i acksoni collected by
Dr. Ansorge in 1909 in the "Nandi country", Kenya.

NAJAS SARCOPTERA (Butler)

Romaleosoma Sarcoptera Butler, Lep. Exot . : 81, (1871)

Euphaedra cyparissa Cramer, var. sarcoptera (Butler)

Aurivillius, Rhop. Aethiop. : 189~y ( 1898)

Although treated as a "variety" of N. cyparissa (Cramer) by
Aurivillius in "Rhopalocera Aethiopica" and again in A. Seitz, "Macro-
lepidoptera of the World", Vol. XIII, 1925, p. 186, it should be
regarded as a distinct species, as its pale subapical patch differs
consistently in shape from that of N. cyparissa; this feature would be
unlikely to be so generally associated with the diagnostic character
of sarcoptera (red patch at base of fw below), if sarcoptera were a
mere form of cyparissa . The distribution of N, sarcoptera is heavy
forest from Dahomey and Ashanti to the Congo, with an isolated race in
western Tanganyika, described below.

131

New Lepidoptera from East Africa

NAJAS SARCOPTERA (Butler), NIPPON ICORUM ssp. nov. (Fig. 4)

Differs from the nominate race in being larger in both sexes and.
in having a more golden, less green ground colour. The sexes are simi¬
lar, but the 9 is somewhat larger than the <d, more rounded, and has
less green, particularly in the fw above.

Measurements : d\ fw, base to apex, 40 mm

g, fw, base to apex, 47 mm

Holotype d1: Ititye Camp, Mihumo , 2b miles east of Kigoma, Western
Province, Tanganyika, V-1964, Kyoto University African Primate
Expedition.

Allotype g: same data as' above, III-1964. Holotype and Allotype to
be deposited in the British Museum (Natural History).

Paratypes : same data as above; 1 d and 1 g in National Museum
(formerly Coryndon Museum), Nairobi; 2 d in Kyoto University.

The forest relics near the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika
appear to be inhabited by a surprising mixture of western and eastern
elements and this is another member of this strange mixed fauna to be
discovered by the Japanese expedition. See : J„E<,Afr.Nat.Hist.Soc,
Vol. XXIV, No. 4 (108) p. 62 1964.

LYCAENIDAE, LIPTENINAE

ALAENA KIELLANDI sp. nov. ( Figs . b , 6 , 7 , 29 & 30)

A large, very distinct species, nearest to A. reticulata Butler,
but differs in the much greater development of all the white markings.

MALE

Antennae : black above and below; knob elongated and laterally
compressed.

Head : vertex light ochraceous-buf f , * frons black, palpi ochraceous-
buf f .

Thorax : black above, covered with sparse white hairs, black below.
Abdomen : black above with sparse white hairs; terminal tuft and
ventral surface ochraceous-buf f .

Legs : Ochraceous-buf f , with a proximal black ring on each tarsal
segment .

Upperside

Forewinq ; ground colour white; costa and all veins sooty black;
a blackish grey transverse bar crossing DC at % from base and a simi¬
lar bar at end of DC; a faint indefinite blackish line from just beyond
base of vein 4 to vein 2 at ^ from base; apex and outer margin paler
blackish grey from costa at % from base to inner margin at % from base;
a white spot in cellule 6 and a larger one near tornus ; cilia buffish
grey.

Hindwinq : ground colour and veins as in fw; costal area from base
to origin of veins 7 and 8 heavily suffused with blackish grey; two
dark transverse bars appear faintly from underside in DC; a broad
blackish grey outer marginal band with indistinct and somewhat irregular

* Colours are taken from Ridgway’s "Color standards and Color
nomenclature" .

132

J.E.Afr.Nat.Hist.Soc.

Vo 1. XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

proximal margin enclosing faint internervular spots, larger and more
distinct in lc and 2; cilia huffish grey.

Underside

Forewing : ground colour white, slightly ochraceous near costa
and in distal third of wing; costa narrowly black; veins heavily out¬
lined in black near outer margin, less so in basal of wing, pale
ochraceous elsewhere; two broad blackish grey transverse bars across
DC and a narrow one extending to vein la at end of DC; cellule lb
smoky grey from base to origin of vein 2; a faint irregular blackish
grey line from vein 5 just beyond end of DC to vein 2 midway from base;
outer margin narrowly black; a thick, somewhat irregular blackish line
evenly arched from origin of vein 9 to vein 2 at % from its origin;
outer marginal area distal to blackish line more decidedly ochraceous,
veins very heavily outlined in black.

Hindwing : ground colour very pale ochraceous, as in outer margin
of fw; costa pale ochraceous from base to end of vein 8; veins 6 and 7,
median, upper and lower DC and cubital veins heavily outlined by black
scales; a complete black crossbar enclosing a large round pale spot at
base of cellule 7 and a second crossbar midway from base, not quite
reaching upper median; DC evenly divided into three large pale areas
by two thick black crossbars; proximal ^ of cellule lc similarly
divided into two pale areas; proximal V4 of lb entirely black, cellule
la divided into three pale areas by two black bars slightly converging
at inner margin; a complete series of black crossbars from costa at
end of vein 8 to inner margin, forming a somewhat irregular continuous
postmedial band as far as vein 2, disconnected at the veins and form¬
ing two distinct steps from vein 2 to inner margin; a narrower submar¬
ginal black line, parallel to postmedial; rather irregular, connected
at the veins, but occasionally interrupted in the internervular spaces,
forming a triangle with apex distad to lc; termen narrowly black from
end of vein 8 to base.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 16 mm.

Genitalia : tegumen short and strongly sclerotised; uncus terminating
in two short broad rounded lobes separated by a deep rounded emargina-
tion; falces long and narrow, strongly sclerotised; aedeagus moderately
stout, pointed and flattened dorso-ventrally at apex; valves short,
blunt with pointed apices; juxta very small, mainly membranous, except
apically .

FEMALE

Similar to d, but larger and more rounded.

Uppers ide

Similar to d, but underside markings more clearly visible; dark
marginal bands of both wings enclosing complete series of pale
submarginal spots.

Underside

Ground colour somewhat paler than in d; all black markings heavier
and more distinct than in d; traces of an irregular black submarginal
band in fw corresponding with that of hw; in the g Paratype the black
markings of both surfaces are still heavier.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 18-20 mm.

Genitalia : lobes small and slightly hairy; ostium bursae rounded,
surrounded by an irregular sclerotised plate; bursa missing.

Holotype d and Allotype 9 ; Sibweza, Mpanda, Western Tanganyika XII-
1962, J. Kielland, to be deposited in the British Museum (Natural
History) .

133

New Lepidoptera from East Africa

1 Paratype c? : data as above„

1 Paratype 9 : Sitwe, Mpanda, Western Tanganyika, XII-1963, J.Kielland;
Paratypes in the National Museum (formerly Coryndon Museum), Nairobi.

GEOMET R I DAE ENNOM I N AE

BLABOPLUTODES PARVIST ICTUS sp. nov0 (Figs. 13 & 31)

Differs from Bc missilorum Prout in its smaller size, relatively
longer antennal pectinations and smaller dark spots.

MALE

Antennae : Naples yellow, pectinations very long and slender.

Head and body : uniformly Naples yellow, first and second pairs of
legs somewhat darker.

Uppers ide

Forewing : lightly scaled, translucid Naples yellow; costal area
more heavily scaled, mainly pale pinkish brown with some yellow; costal
margin narrowly Naples yellow from '4 from base to %\ pale brown costal
streak narrowly interrupted by Naples yellow at from base; five more
or less parallel series of regular pale pinkish spots from costa to
inner margin most clearly visible at the veins; fourth series of spots
(postmedial) coalesce, forming an irregular faint line, sharply in¬
dented distad at the veins; a series of pale pinkish brown terminal
spots in internervular spaces invading the Naples yellow fringe and
giving it a chequered appearance; apex of wing rather rounded, outer
margin evenly curved.

Hindwing : similar to fw, but lacking darker costal area.

Unders ide

Uniformly Naples yellow, darker markings faintly visible through
wing membrane from upper surface.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 10 mm.

Genitalia : Membranous and lightly sclerotised; uncus long, curved
and slender; valve bilobed; upper lobe longer, hairy and unarmed;
ventral lobe terminating in an inward projecting long stout spine;
juxta very long and slender; aedeagus slender and evenly arched, vesica
unarmed.

FEMALE

Unknown .

Holotype c? : Katera, Sango Bay, Masaka, Uganda, X-1960, R.H. Carcasson,
to be deposited in British Museum (Natural History)

2 <d Paratypes : data as above, in National Museum, Nairobi.

PSILOCEREA MELANOPS sp. nov.

Differs from other species of the genus in the straight, somewhat
concave outer margin of the fw, in the rounded hw and in the presence
of a well developed precostal spur; this species may be wrongly placed
In Ps ilocerea . but it would be unwise to erect a new genus to accommo¬
date it without knowledge of the 9 and until the African Ennominae
have been more adequately studied.

134

J. E.Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

MALE

Antennae : shaft yellowish brown, pectinations long, black; distal
third of shaft bare.

Head : vertex, frons and palpi brown;

Thorax : tegulae pale drab grey edged posteriorly with light brown
scales; patagia chamois; postnotum dark brown; ventral surface uniform¬
ly chamois, but rather darker anteriorly.

Abdomen : chamois above, somewhat speckled with darker scales; first
tergite with a prominent patch of slightly raised broad white scales;
ventral surface uniformly chamois.

Legs : chamois, more or less speckled with light brown.

Upperside

Forewinq : ground colour chamois, more or less irrorated with
darker scales and speckled with a few scattered black scales; an
indistinct whitish area at base, edged distally with light brown;
proximal third of costa light brownish olive and a costal spot of the
same colour at origin of vein 8; a broad, straight light brownish olive
diagonal bar from apex to just beyond middle of inner margin, broader
at apex, overlaid in some specimens in cellules lb and la by a large
black reniform spot surrounded by whitish scales; cilia uniformly buff.

Hindwing : ground colour as above; fw band continued to middle of
inner margin, but paler and much more diffuse; a small dark dot at
costa, near apex, followed by a series of dark postdiscal spots at all
the veins; a faint, irregular dark postmedial band culminating in an
irregular black spot edged with whitish scales just above tornus; cilia
uniformly buff.

Unders ide

Similar to above, but more heavily speckled with brown; diagonal
band and nervular spots of hw more distinct, black markings and whitish
scales absent.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 17 - 19 mm.

Genitalia : Uncus broad and short, terminating in a short hook; valve
long with subparallel edges; distal end of costa somewhat swollen,
armed with minute spines; a short, blunt, heavily sclerotised pear
shaped harpe, densely covered by minute spines; aedeagus short and
stout, distal half covered by minute surface tubercles; a small inter¬
nal, well chitinised cylinder in proximal half and a curious elongated
body in distal part of aedeagus.

FEMALE

Unknown .

Holotype d1 : Kalinzu Forest, Ankole, Uganda, XI-1961, FUH. Carcasson,
to be deposited in British Museum (Natural History),
d* Paratypes : 1, data as above

1, locality as above, 1-1965, J. Scheven.

1, Mabira Forest, Jinja, Uganda, X-1962, R.H. Carcasson.
Paratypes in National Museum, Nairobi.

XYLOPTERYX PROUTI sp. nov. (Figs. 12,32 & 33)

Allied to X. sima Prout , but smaller and more boldly marked.

MALE

Antennae : pectinations longer than in other species of the genus.

135

New Lepidoptera from East Africa

Head : vertex, frons and palpi mustard yellow, lightly speckled with
dark scales.

Thorax and Abdomen : Naples yellow speckled with deep olive, particular¬
ly above.

Legs ; Naples yellow speckled with deep olive; no hair pencil on hind
tibiae .

Uppers ide

Forewing : ground colour deep olive; a straight Naples yellow
band from costa at % from base to inner margin at 3/b from base; an
irregular Naples yellow band from apex to inner margin at % from base;
a short Naples yellow bar from costa at % from base to pale outer band
at end of cell; a pale streak connecting the two pale bands along the
cubital vein; dark areas more or less vermiculated with Naples yellow
near base, apex and outer margin.

Hindwing : pale buffy brown with an indistinct dark dot at end of
cell and somewhat darker near outer margin.

Unders ide

Pale yellowish grey; a faint darker submarginal band from costa
of fw to inner margin of hw; a large, but indistinct darker spot at end
of cell in both wings.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 10 mm.

Genitalia : Uncus short and broad, apex bifurcated; valve long and
bilobed, upper lobe very slender; aedeagus very lightly sclerotised,
moderately stout, ending in a blunt, short terminal hook; vesica armed
with a serrated chitinous plate.

FEMALE

Similar to d, but larger, antennae not pectinated, pale vermicula-
tions of fw more developed and hw paler.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 13 mm.

Genitalia ; lobes long and slender, almost hairless; ductus short,
bursa pear shaped; signum large, rounded, margin produced into minute
spine.

Holotype d and Allotype $> : Kalinzu Forest, Ankole, Uganda, XI-1961.

RoH. Carcasson, to be deposited in the British Museum (Natural History),
d Paratypes 2 : data as above, in National Museum, Nairobi.

NOTE : this species is very similar, though smaller to a species in

the British Museum which Prout named X. antiotriba. but did not
publish.

APH1LQP0TA FLETCHERI sp. nov. (Figs. 14 & 35)

Allied to A, rufiplaga Warren, but differs in its greater size
and lighter ground colour.

MALE

Antennae : shaft speckled fuscus and very pale olive qrey; pectinations
black; distal VA of shaft bare.

Heacl : vertex and frons very pale olive grey speckled with darker
scales; palpi fuscous tipped with pale olive grey.

Thorax . tegulae very pale olive grey, edged anteriorly and posteriorly
with dark scales; patagia pale olive grey, fuscous laterally and post¬
eriorly; dorsum pale olive grey, fuscous laterally; ventral surface
fuscous anteriorly, shading to pale olive grey posteriorly.

136

J. E.Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Vo 1. XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

Abdomen : pale olive grey more or less speckled with fuscous above and
below.

Legs ; fuscous, more or less speckled with pale olive grey.

Upperside

Forewing : margin crenulated; ground colour ivory yellow, heavily
irrorated and speckled with olive brown and fuscous; a narrow black
line from costa at 1/5 from base to upper median at l/§ from base to
inner margin near base; a dark crescentic stigma at end of cell, some¬
times enclosing a light area; a dark straight fascia from costa at %
from base to middle of inner margin; a narrow blackish line from costa
at origin of vein 8 to just beyond middle of vein 6, then sharply
angled to just beyond origin of vein 3 and then to beyond middle of
inner margin, angled distad at vein la; lower half of cellule lb and
cellule la suffused with dark vinaceous brown from base to a point %
from base; veins 6 and 2 overlaid with dark scales from origin to
outer black line; preapical part of costa, centre of cellules 8 and 7,
distal % of cellule 6 and distal half of 5 and 4 heavily suffused with
olive brown, submarginal area less so; remainder of postdiscal area
distal to outer black line almost free of dark irrorations; termen
narrowly blackish with a blackish dot at centre of each internervular
space; cilia irregularly chequered.

Hindwing ; margin crenulated and somewhat quadrate; ground colour
as above, most heavily irrorated with dark scales near base and near
inner and outer margins; costal area almost free of dark irrorations;
dark fascia of fw continued in hw to middle of inner margin; dark
reniform stigma larger and more conspicuous than in fw; a narrow
blackish line from middle of vein 6 to middle of vein 5, then angled
proximad to cellule lc at % from base, where it turns sharply towards
tornus before reaching inner margin; termen and cilia as in fw.

Underside

Ground colour slightly more brownish than above; dark irrorations
more evenly distributed and less dense; dark fascia very indistinct in
fw, better defined in hw; dark stigmata clearly visible; outer black
line reduced to dots at the veins in both wings; a diffuse dark area
beyond middle of vein 5 in fw.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 18-22 mm.

Genitalia : uncus short and blunt; valve elongated and slender with
rounded apex; processi of juxta long and spatulate, slightly toothed
along upper margin; aedeagus stout, short and slightly arched; vesica
terminating in a group of heavily sclerotised sharp spines.

FEMALE

Unknown .

Holotype cJ : Kalinzu Forest, Ankole, Uqanda, XI-1961, R.H. Carcasson,
to be deposited in the British Museum (Natural History),
d’’ Paratypes : 1, data as for Holotype.

1, Mpanga Forest, Fort Portal, Toro, Uganda, V-1958,

R.H. Carcasson.

3, Katera, Sango Bay, Masaka, Uganda, X-1960,

R.H. Carcasson.

Paratypes in the National Museum, Nairobi.

The three Katera Paratypes are smaller and darker and may repre¬
sent a local race.

This species is dedicated to my friend Mr. D.S. Fletcher of the
British Museum (Natural History).

137

New Lepidoptera from East Africa

COLOCLEORA ANKOLEENSIS sp. nov. (Figs. 15 & 38)

A large species, apparently with no close allies.

MALE

Antennae : light tawny olive, basal % heavily pectinated.

Head : vertex, frons and third segment of palpus light tawny olive,
second and third segments darker below.

Thorax : pale tawny olive above, darker below, especially anteriorly.
Abdomen : pale tawny olive above, paler below.

Legs : almost hairless except coxae and proximal half of femora; outer
surface brown, inner surface much paler; inner surface of hind tibiae
provided with long hair pencil concealed in a groove.

Upperside

Forewing ; ground colour intermediate between cinnamon buff and
tawny olive, densely but irregularly speckled with darker scales; ante-
medial band dark brown, only visible from costa to middle of cell; a
prominent dark brown stigma at end of cell, its lower and distal end in
contact with medial fascia; medial fascia paler than other markings,
from middle of costa to middle of inner margin, strongly curved distad
at end of cell; postmedial dark brown, crenulate and strongly curved
distad from vein 7 to vein 3, beyond which it is indicated by dark
dots on veins; termen marked by a series of narrow dark internervular
lunules ; margin strongly crenulated, cilia uniformly concolorous with
wing .

Hindwing : ground colour and margin as above; basal area paler
than rest of wing, being almost free of dark scales; medial and post-
medial fasciae dark and distinct, enclosing a prominent snuff brown
band and a dark brown stigma; some irregular dark brown submarginal
mottling, particularly near tornus.

Unders ide

Uniform very pale brown with faint stigmata and medial fasciae in
both wings and a pale but distinct and regular submarginal band paral¬
lel to outer margin of both wings.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 27-30 mm.

Genitalia : Uncus short, blunt and hairy; valves bilobed, asymmetrical,
the right hand one being larger and longer; a long harpe terminating
in a cluster of twisted spines at lower margin of right valve; left
valve shorter and unarmed; aedeagus slender, arched, terminating in a
sharp spine; interior occupied by a long sclerotised body of apparently
cellular structure.

FEMALE

Unknown .

Holotype d : Kalinzu Forest, Ankole, Uqanda, XI-1961, R.H. Carcasson,
to be deposited in the British Museum (Natural History),
d Paratypes ; 1, same data as Holotype .

1, locality as above, 11-1964, J. Scheven.

Paratypes in the National Museum, Nairobi.

J.E.Afr.Nat.Hist.Soc.

Vo 1. XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

GEQDENA CANDIDA sp. nov. (Figs. 10 & 39)

Differs from G, discinota Warren and from G, pupillata Warren in
the absence of the dark margin and of the discal spot in hw.

MALE

Antennae : shaft dark grey; pectinations long, black.

Head : Vertex and frons ochraceous buff; palpi ochraceous buff tipped
with black.

Thorax : white above, very pale buff below.

Abdomen : very pale buff above and below.

Legs : very pale buff; first and second pairs darker posteriorly.
Upperside

Uniformly creamy white, very pale buff at costa, apex and outer
margin of fw; a prominent rounded blackish spot at end of fw cell; hw
unspotted .

Underside

As above, but buffish colour at costa, apex and outer margin of
both wings more pronounced, particularly at the veins; discal spot of
fw paler.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 19 mm.

Genitalia : Uncus long, spatulate and hairy; valve rounded and hairy,
not strongly chitinised; harpe absent; juxta short and blunt, provided
with two lateral tufts of dense hairs; aedeagus straight and slender,
vesica armed with a single long sharp spine.

FEMALE

Unknown .

Holotype d : Kalinzu Forest, Ankole, Uganda, XI-1961, R.H. Carcasson,
to be deposited in the British Museum [Natural History).

GEQDENA AUREA sp. nov. (Figs. 8,37 & 42)

Allied to G, dama Holland, but differs in the lack of a prominent
dark border, in the brighter colour of hw and in the reduction of the
dark discal spots.

MALE

Antennae : shaft dark greyish brown, pectinations black.

Head : collar antimony yellow, base of vertex warm buff ; remainder of
vertex and upper half of frons dark brown, lower half of frons antimony
yellow; palpi antimony yellow tipped with brownish grey.

Thorax : warm buff above, antimony yellow below.

Abdomen : deep olive buff above, antimony yellow below.

Legs : Femora antimony yellow, tibiae and tarsi speckled with brown.

Upperside

Forewing : Uniformly pinkish buff, costal margin slightly darker
at base; a short oblique blackish streak at end of cell.

Hindwing : ochraceous orange, paler at costa; tornus and inner
margin to vein 2 pinkish buff; discal spot smaller and fainter than in

fw.

139

New Lepidoptera from East Africa

Underside

Uniformly pale ochraceous orange, brighter in hw; dark discal
spots smaller and paler, particularly in hw.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 17-18 mm.

Genitalia : Uncus as in following species; valve somewhat longer, harpe
much shorter; eversible bags large; aedeagus short, well sclerotised;
vesica armed with a row of closely appressed short spines.

FEMALE

Similar to male.

Genitalia : lobes small; bursa very small, spherical; signa absent;
ductus wide, very strongly sclerotised, rugose rather than fluted.

Holotype c? and Allotype $ :Kalinzu Forest, Ankole, Uganda, XI-1961,
R.H. Carcasson, to be deposited in the British Museum (Natural History).
One $ Paratype, data as above, in the National Museum, Nairobi.

GEODENA CINEREA sp. nov. (Figs. 9,36 & 41)

Closely allied to G. discinota Warren, but differs in having a
darker ground colour and ill-defined marginal border.

MALE

Antennae : shaft dark grey, pectinations black.

Head : Vertex and frons yellow ochre; palpi yellow ochre tipped with
black.

Thorax : deep olive buff above, honey yellow below.

Abdomen : deep olive buff above; below distal half honey yellow.

Legs : femora honey yellow; fore and mid tibiae and tarsi honey yellow,
yellowish grey anteriorly; hind tibiae and tarsi completely honey
yellow.

Upperside

Forewinq ; ground colour deep olive buff; basal half of costal
margin narrowly black; distal third of wing broadly suffused with
darker grey from radius to tornus , paler ground colour invading inter-
nervular spaces 3 and 4; an oblique black streak at end of cell.

Hindwinq : ground colour somewhat paler than fw, outer margin
darker; a pear shaped black spot at end of cell.

Underside

Uniformly deep olive buff, somewhat ochreous at the veins;
darker marginal areas only slightly indicated; black discal spots more
sharply defined.

Measurements : fw, base to apex, 14-16 mm.

Genitalia : Uncus spatulate, spoon-shaped and hairy; valves short,
blunt and hairy, provided with a long slender sickle-like harpe; a
long eversible membranous bag at each side of juxta; aedeagus straight
and slender; vesica armed with two long, strongly sclerotised spines.

140

J. E.Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

FEMALE

Similar to male, but antennal pectinations shorter.

Genitalia : lobes small and hairy; bursa small and spherical; ductus
long, wide, well sclerotised and fluted; signa absent.

Holotype c? and Allotype $ : Kalinzu Forest, Ankole, Uganda, XI-1961,
R.H. Carcasson, to be deposited in the British Museum (Natural Histoty) .
Paratypes ; 6 cT and 2 9, data as above, in the National Museum,

Nairobi .

NOCTUIDAE ACRONYCTINAE

NEOSTICHTIS FULGURATA sp. nov. (Figs. 20 & 51)

Differs from N« niqricostata Hampson in having a more irregular
outer margin and shorter inner margin to fw, as well as a more trian¬
gular hw.

MALE

Antennae : filiform, fasciculate, white near base.

Head : frons and vertex cream colour; four crests: one between anten¬
nae, one on upper part of frons and one under base of each antenna;
palpi light brown.

Thorax : tegulae cream surrounded with blackish and provided with long
greyish olive fringes; a prominent greyish olive and white dorsal
crest immediately behind tegulae; patagia cream distally, greyish
olive proximally; dorsum greyish olive, cream at centre; thorax below
cream coloured laterally, Benzo brown ventrally with a black spot with
pale margin below each eye.

Abdomen : cream tinged with brown dors ally; crest on first abdominal
tergite and anal tuft darker; lateral fringes almost white; fuscous
below, speckled lightly with pale scales.

Legs : inner surface fuscous, external surface cream fringed with
brown; tibial spines fuscous tipped with white.

Uppers ide

Forewinq : narrow and elongated, inner margin % of costa, convex;
outer margin strongly crenulate, produced at veins 4 and 7; costa
broadly dark purple brown mottled with blackish and with some pale
scales almost as far as apex; a broad cream coloured band parallel to
costa from base to end of veins 7 and 8 enclosing a dark olive buff
rather oval orbicular spot and a reniform spot of the same colour, as
well as some indistinct very pale olive markings; a very irregular
oblique greyish olive band with zig-zag margins from basal convexity
of inner margin to outer margin at veins 4 to 7, enclosing a prominent
blackish spot in the base of cellules 3 and 4 as well as the extremely
crenulate and oblique postmedial band which is incomplete and mainly
marked by dark dots at the veins; a pale cream zig-zag from la near
inner margin to outer margin at vein 4; a very narrow subterminal
cream coloured line from inner margin lobe to vein 3; termen narrowly
dark fuscous from tornus to apex except at veins 4, 7 and 8; cilia
greyish olive except at veins 4, 7 and 8, where they are cream coloured.

141

New Lepidoptera from East Africa

Hindwing : triangular, with well defined apex and tornus ; ground
colour white, somewhat darker at inner margin; costal and apical areas
grey; a brownish red terminal line from apex to lb; cilia white, mixed
with brownish red.

Underside

Forewing : costa mostly white scattered dark scales; remainder of
wing fuscous, paler from cubitus and vein 3 to inner margin; a broad
zig-zag cream band from apex to vein 2, reaching margin at veins 8, 7
and 4; a rather faint, fuscous, regular postmedial band from near
costa to inner margin; cilia reddish brown darker distally.

Hindwing : white, lightly scaled from inner margin to vein 5;
costa and apex densely scaled, white speckled with blackish scales
from base to vein 5; apical area grey; an irregular blackish line from
costa to vein 5, being the continuation of the fw postmedial, but much
more distinct; termen and cilia as on upperside.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 19-21 mm.

Genitalia : median portion of tegumen membranous; uncus bilobed at
base, then issuing into a single long stout hook armed with a small
patch of bristles halfway down its dorsum; valve broad and blunt,
provided with a bilobed harpe, one lobe at apex and one lobe at inner
margin; harpes asymmetrical; two strongly sclerotised pointed projec¬
tions at inner margin of right valve, absent in left valve; aedeagus
short, stout and strongly curved0

FEMALE

Unknown .

Holotype c? : Amani, Usambara, Tanganyika, G, Pringle, to be deposited
in the British Museum (Natural History).

4 d Paratypes : same data and collector, in the National Museum,
Nairobi.

1 d Paratype : Rugege Forest, Ruanda District, Lake Kivu, 7,000 ft.,
XII-1921, T.A. Barns, in the British Museum (Natural History).

NOCTUIDAE WESTERMANNINAE

AITETA PULCHERRIMA sp. nov. (Figs. 16 & 49)

Allied to A. meterythra Hampson, but differs in having a darker
and more variegated fw and an orange hw.

MALE

Antennae : brown, filiform, bif asciculate .

Head : frons and vertex Hessian brown, palpi madder brown.

Thorax : Hessian brown above; tegulae surmounted by erect crests;
below pale ochraceous buff laterally, light ferruginous ventrally.
Abdomen : mainly ochraceous buff above; first four tergites with dark
brown dorsal crests; three terminal segments purple brown; anal tuft
purple brown tipped with brick red; ventral aspect covered in long
apricot buff hairs shading to ferruginous posteriorly.

Legs : coxae and femora ferruginous, hind femora paler; fore tibiae
Hessian brown, fore tarsi whitish proximally, Hessian brown distally;
mid tibiae and tarsi somewhat paler; hind tibiae covered in long
ochraceous salmon hairs, darker distally; a long brown hair pencil at
base of hind tibia.

142

J. E . Af r.Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vo 1. XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

Uppers ide

Forewinq : shaped as in A. meterythra; ground colour glossy
Hessian brown, mottled with pale vinaceous pink; antemedial band wavy,
pale vinaceous pink bordered with blackish, from costa at ^ from base
to middle of hind margin; an irregular pale vinaceous pink spot with
very diffuse margins in middle of DC; a blackish stigma at end of cell;
postmedial like antemedial, very wavy, from beyond middle of costa to
tornus ; subterminal band dark brown edged with pinkish from costa at %
from base to tornus, sharply angled distad at veins 3 and 4; a short
pinkish preapical band; cilia Hessian brown at apex and tornus and at
internervular spaces, pinkish at veins 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.

Hindwinq : uniformly ochraceous buff shading to ochraceous orange
at apex and termen.

Underside

Forewinq ; ground colour apricot orange, brighter in DC and from
costa to vein 6; costa narrowly ferruginous; basal half of wing below
cubitus warm buff with strong pearly sheen; cilia ferruginous, paler
at the veins.

Hindwinq : uniformly ochraceous buff; costa and cilia ochraceous
orange .

Measurements : fw, base to apex 15 mm.

Genitalia : tegumen short and slender; uncus very slender, almost
straight, much shorter than end of valve; valves long, membranous; a
strongly chitinised plate provided with numerous lamellae on ventral
surface of valve, near base; Aedeagus short, very slightly arched;
vesica armed with a very stout spine.

FEMALE

Unknown .

Holotype d1 : Katera, Sango Bay, Masaka, Uganda, X-1960, R.H. Carcasson,
to be deposited in the British Museum (Natural History),
c? Paratypes 2 : data as above, in the National Museum, Nairobi.

NOCTUIDAE HADENINAE

DIAPHONE NIVEIPLAGA sp. nov. (Figs. 19 & 52)

Differs from other species of the genus in being smaller and
darker.

FEMALE

Antennae : filiform and simple.

Head : frons and vertex greyish olive; a light yellow ochre spot at
base of each antenna; palpi light yellow ochre.

Thorax : rubbed above, but showing indications of greyish olive ground
colour and yellow ochre spots; below plain greyish olive.

Abdomen : tergites blackish anteriorly, yellow ochre posteriorly pro¬
ducing an effect of alternate transverse yellow and black bands;
blackish laterally and ventrally.

Legs : deep greyish olive, banded and spotted with yellow ochre.

Uppers ide

Forewinq : ground colour greyish olive, probably darker and
brighter in a fresh specimen; a short yellow ochre streak in DC from
base to subbasal line; a thick black subbasal line from costa to la; a

143

New Lepidoptera from East Africa

thick black medial line thickened at costa, evenly curved distad to la
and then straightening to inner margin at from base; area between
subbasal and medial pure white from costa to la; a square black spot
just beyond middle of costa; a thick black line from interior of DC,
at a point posterior and proximal to black costal spot sharply angled
distad at vein 3, thence coalescing with incomplete postmedial and
reaching inner margin at % from base; a large white area representing
reniform spot, limited proximally by black line in cell, posteriorly
by curve of black line at vein 3 and distally by a short black line in
space 5, which is part of the incomplete postmedial; postmedial edged
distally with whitish from costa to inner margin, even where it is
obsolete; a complete series of pale submarginal spots; cilia chequered
grey and yellow ochre.

Hindwing : uniform greyish olive; a faint black medial line from
vein 5 to tornus ; termen narrowly yellowish; cilia yellowish.

Underside

Uniformly greyish olive with upperside markings showing through;
basal area of fw paler; black medial line of hw present, faintly indi¬
cated in fw.

Measurements ; fw, base to apex, 16 mm.

Genitalia : lobes fairly prominent, only slightly hairy, ductus very
short; bursa ovoid, armed with two very small minutely spinose pear-
shaped signa.

MALE

Unknown .

Holotype g : Malka murri, Mandera, Northern Frontier District, Kenya,
X-1951, Boundary Commission, to be deposited in the British Museum
(Natural History).

NOCT UI DAE C ATOC AL I N AE

TQLNA BURDONI sp. nov. (Figs. 23 & 54)

Allied to T. hypogrammica Hampson, but larger and differently
marked.

FEMALE

Head and Thorax : various shades of brown above, drab below.
Abdomen : hair brown above, drab below.

Legs : drab; femora and tibiae covered in long hair.

Upperside

For.ewing ; ground colour dusky drab; basal, subbasal, antemedial,
postmedial and subterminal bands black edged with pale greenish scales;
antemedial and postmedial incomplete, joining together at vein 2,
enclosing black reniform spot; orbicular spot black, small and incon¬
spicuous; subterminal crenulated and deeply angled distad at vein 6,
black, edged distally with very pale greenish and from costa to vein 6
by a broad pale preapical bar; a black spot at apex followed by a
brown Une parallel to subterminal; internervular spaces blackish out-
side brown line; termen narrowly black with a complete series of small
black dots edged distally with white between veins; cilia concolorous
with wing, margin deeply crenulated.

144

J. E.Afr. Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vol.XXV No. 2 (ill) June 1965

Hindwinq : ground colour hair brown; a white apical spot from
costa to vein 6; a grey submarginal band from apical spot to tornus ;
cilia greyish brown with a darker line parallel to margin from tornus
to middle of cellule 4, thence pure white to costa; margin deeply
crenulated.

Unders ide

Ground colour drab; basal half of both wings darker grey, becoming
blackish in cell of fw; a dark stigma in hw; a broad pale diffuse
fascia from beyond middle of costa to tornus of fw enclosing a crenu¬
lated fuscous postmedial band which is continued in hw; outer marginal
band pale drab in both wings, with small black terminal dots in inter-
nervular spaces; cilia pale grey edged distally with fuscous, except
from costa to cellule 4 of hw, where they are mixed with white.
Measurements : fw, base to apex 31 mm.

Genitalia : lobes very small, ductus wide and striated; ostium protec¬
ted by a strongly sclerotised bilobed operculum; proximal rim of
ostium strongly chitinised.

MALE

Unknown .

Holotype £ : Mufindi, Iringa, Tanganyika. P. Burdon, to be deposited
in the British Museum (Natural History).

ACHAEA SEMIFLAVA sp. nov. ( Figs. 23 & 53)

Allied to A. praestans Guenee, but easily distinguished by the
much greater extension of the yellow area of the hw.

FEMALE

Head, body and legs : greyish black.

Uppers ide

Forewinq : markings typically noctuine, not simplified or reduced,
but inconspicuous owing to the extreme darkness of the ground colour
which is very dark brown, almost black; apical and tornal areas paler
brown; markings of basal half formed by yellow scales on a very dark
purplish brown background, producing a deep greenish effect; stigma
and base of cellules lb, 2 and 3 more decidedly yellow; a complete
series of small yellow terminal dots between ends of veins.

Hindwinq : entirely antimony yellow except for a blackish brown
inner marginal area stretching from base to just beyond vein 3 at
margin.

Underside

Forewinq : distal half of wing brownish black from middle of
costa to tornus; apex and costa brownish olive; a small brownish black
area at base of lb, remainder of wing antimony yellow.

Hindwinq : as upperside, but inner marginal area not so dark.
Measurements : fw, base to apex, 28-30 mm.

Genitalia : lobes moderate, slightly hairy; ductus very short, strongly
sclerotised; bursa rounded, without signa; ostium protected by a large
bilobed operculum.

145

New Lepidoptera from East Africa

MALE

Unknown.

Holotype g : Kalinzu Forest, Ankole, Uqanda, XI-1961, R.H. Carcasson,
to be deposited in the British Museum (Natural History).

1 Paratype g : locality as above, 1-1965, J. Scheven in the National
Museum, Nairobi.

NOCTUIDAE PLUS I INAE

PLUS I A EUCHRQIDES sp. nov. (Figs. 22,43 & 45)

Very closely allied to P. euchroa Hampson, but differs in being
larger, more robustly built, with a less sinuous subterminal and a
more curved antemedial.

MALE

Head, thorax and legs : deep greyish olive, abdomen paler; a very
prominent anal tuft, very slightly yellowish.

Upperside

Forewinq : outer margin very regularly curved, without crenula-
tions; ground colour dark greyish olive with a slight metallic lustre;
base and area surrounding end of DC submetallic coppery; basal reaches
radius only; subbasal from radius to inner margin, strongly curved
distad; antemedial bifurcated from radius to vein 2 to form oblique
oval loop enclosing an area of ground colour, thence curving proximad
at vein 2 and reaching inner margin at % from base; postmedial very
sinuous, merging with antemedial at vein 2; subterminal parallel to
termen from costa to vein 6, then curving away from termen very
gradually, to rejoin it at tornus ; termen consisting of two pale narrow
parallel lines separated by a very narrow darker one; cilia paler than
ground colour.

Hindwing : greyish olive, paler at base; in some specimens there
are faint traces of a postmedial band; termen and cilia as in fw.

Underside

Uniform greyish olive, paler at the base, with subterminal of fw
showing faintly and postmedial of hw more distinct in some specimens.
Measurements : fw, base to apex 17-18 mm.

Genitalia : uncus very long, slender and evenly arched; valves long,
narrow and pointed; entire ventral margin armed with evenly spaced
curved bristles; juxta long and slender; aedeagus long, slightly
arched; vesica armed with two very long stout spines and seven smaller
ones .

FEMALE

Similar to d , but larger and lacking prominent anal tuft.
Measurements : fw, base to apex 20 mm.

Genitalia : lobes pointed; bursa irregular and angular; ductus long,
elbowed and fluted, flaring out at ostium; signa absent.

Holotype d : Kalinzu Forest, Ankole, Uganda, XI-61, R.H. Carcasson.
Allotype g ; Nairobi, Kenya V-1961, R.H. Carcasson; Holotype and
Allotype to be deposited in the British Museum (Natural History).

J. E . Af r . Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

c? Paratypes : 1, Kalinzu Forest, Ankole, Uganda, XI-1961, R.H.Carcasson

1, Budongo Forest, Uganda, XI-1964, E.S. Brown;

1, Jacaranda Research Station, Ruiru, Kenya, IV-1960;

1, Nakuru, Kenya, 26-III-1940, A.L.H. Townsend.

Paratypes in the National Museum, Nairobi.

PLUSIA RQSEOFASCIATA sp. nov. (Figs. 21,44 & 48)

Closely allied to P. sestertia Felder, but may be readily distin¬
guished by the single rhomboid silvery spot below the cubitus.

MALE

Head : frons and vertex tawny olive; palpi cream buff, two basal seg¬
ments heavily speckled with blackish.

Thorax : tegulae tawny olive, posterior margin white; mesothorax
blackish, patagia blackish anteriorly, white posteriorly; metathoracic
crest white, tinged with coral pink; ventral surface deep olive buff.
Abdomen : cartridge buff above and below; anal tuft yellowish or
greyish.

Legs : fuscous with cartridge buff rings on tibiae and tarsi.

Upperside

Forewinq : ground colour metallic dark olive buff with brassy
sheen in some lights, almost black in others; a subbasal silvery white
area enclosing a coral pink spot in lb, edged distally by a narrow
wavy blackish line and surmounted costad by a large subtriangular
black spot with base resting on costa and apex below cubitus; costa
from black subbasal spot to postmedial variegated silvery white, dark
grey and black; DC grey with a coral pink diagonal cross bar; end of
cell black with a narrow, indistinct, incomplete silvery reniform ring;
a prominent silvery rhomboid spot narrowly edged with black in centre
of wing, occupying area between cubitus and middle of vein 2; area
enclosed by subbasal spot, cubitus, silvery rhomboid, postmedial and
inner margin dark olive buff with strong metallic lustre; area between
silvery rhomboid, postmedial and reniform, black; area between end of
cell and postmedial metallic dark olive buff; postmedial fascia coral
pink shading to white and then to metallic dark olive buff distally,
edged proximally by a narrow, irregular black line from radius af %
from base to beyond middle of inner margin; a black costal dot immed¬
iately above origin of postmedial and one at inner margin at end of
postmedial; metallic submarginal area beyond postmedial shading to
black at costa and from vein 7 to vein 3 where it touches white
terminal band; white terminal band very irregular, enclosing a promin¬
ent black spot at apex, forming a deep, sharp indentation proximad at
vein 5 and another at vein 2 and completely interrupted at veins 4 and
3, where the dark submarginal band reaches termen; each white terminal
indentation at veins 5 and 2 enclosing a coral pink spot; cilia white
except at apex and at cellule 3, where they are blackish; a few black¬
ish scales in fringe at ends of other veins.

Hindwing ; uniform deep greyish olive, paler at base; cilia paler.
Underside

Forewinq : greyish olive with silvery rhomboid showing faintly as
a pale central spot and the two white terminal wedges at 5 and 2
distinct and greyish white.

Hindwing ; dark greyish olive, basal half and narrow terminal
margin paler.

147

New Lepidoptera from East Africa

Measurements : fw, base to apex 12-14 mm.

Genitalia : Uncus extremely long and slender; valves long and slender,
armed with a long, slender projection at costa; aedeagus long and
stout, armed with a tuft of strong spines near apex; vesica with numer¬
ous small spines.

FEMALE

Similar to d, but lacking anal tuft.

Genitalia : lobes moderate, ductus very long, slender and striated;
signa absent.

Holotype d : Amani, E. Usambara, Tanganyika, X-1963, G. Pringle.
Allotype $ : Nairobi, Kenya, VI-1957, R.H. Carcasson; Holotype and
Allotype to be deposited in the British Museum (Natural History),
d Paratypes : 1, Amani, E. Usambara, Tanganyika, V-1961, G. Pringle.

1, locality as above, 11-1953, E. Pinhey.

1, Bwamba, Toro, Uganda, IX-1961, N. Mitton.

Paratypes in the National Museum, Nairobi.

NOCTUI DAE OPH I DERI N AE

CALESIA CRYPTOLEUCA sp. nov. (Figs. 26,46 & 55)

This species has no close allies and has a short third segment
to the palpus, as in C. othello Fawcett.

MALE

Antennae ; blackish, ciliate.

Head : vertex, frons and palpi, ochraceous buff.

Thorax ; ventral surface and tegulae ochraceous buff, patagia ochrac¬
eous buff shading to citrine drab.

Abdomen : citrine drab above and below; anal tuft tinged with buff.

Legs : ochraceous buff.

Uppers ide

Forewinq : uniformly citrine drab.

Hindwing : white with a broad, regular citrine drab outer marginal
band; veins blackish in white area.

Unders ide

Like upperside, but dark border of hw slightly narrower.
Measurements : fw, base to apex 24-25 mm.

Genitalia : uncus very slender; gnathos spatulate, terminating in two
cushions of small bristles; valve bilobed, upper lobe hairy, lower
lobe terminating in two widely separated points; a strong harpe projec¬
ting inwards from upper lobe; aedeagus short and straight, apex rather
convoluted.

FEMALE

Similar to d1, but antennae more slender and not ciliate.

Genitalia : lobes prominent, slightly sclerotised, almost hairless;
ductus short, well sclerotised, funnel shaped, provided with two sac-
like extensions near ostium; bursa cylindrical, inner surface armed
with numerous small spines pointed towards ostium.

Holotype d: Bwamba, Toro, Uganda, II-III-1957, R.H. Carcasson.

148

J. E.Afr. Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

Allotype $ : locality as above, IX-1961, N» Mitton.

Holotype and Allotype to be deposited in the British Museum (Natural
History) .

d1 Paratypes : 1, Entebbe, Uganda, IX-1954, J.A. Burgess.

1, Malaba Forest, Kakamega, Kenya, VI-1957, C. Howard.
$ Paratypes : 2, same data as Allotype .

Paratypes in the National Museum, Nairobi.

CALESIA CAPUT-RUBRUM sp. nov. (Figs. 17, 47 & 56)

Allied to C. othello Fawcett, but larger, paler and antennal
cilia of cf much longer.

MALE

Antennae : shaft pale olive buff; cilia long, thickened and blackish
at base.

Head : vertex and frons coral red; basal segment of palpus reddish,
second and third somewhat ochreous; last segment short.

Thorax : tegulae pale olive buff mixed with some dark olive and red
scales; patagia pale olive buff more or less speckled with dark olive
scales; a prominent coral red crest on posterior part of dorsum; ven¬
tral surface pale olive buff with a tinge of brown.

Abdomen : pale olive brown with a tinge of brown above and below.

Legs : somewhat darker than abdomen; femora of first pair coral red
anteriorly.

Uppers ide

Forewinq : ground colour pale olive buff with a tinge of brown,
more or less speckled with dark olive scales; a rounded, very pale
stigma at end of DC; postmedial pale olive buff, free of dark scales,
rather indistinct, angled proximad at vein 2; subterminal free of dark
scales, clearly defined and irregular, being sharply angled proximad
in cellules 2, 5 and 7 and edged proximally with dark olive shading
gradually to pale olive buff at postmedial; veins free of dark scales
in outer marginal area; cilia pale olive buff mixed with dark olive.

Hindwinq : uniformly pale olive buff with a brownish tinge, free
of dark scales; an irregular, rather indistinct subterminal band con¬
sisting of rather widely spaced dark olive scales, particularly
prominent at tornus ; outer margin darkened by a sprinkling of dark
olive scales; cilia paler than in fw.

Underside

As above, but dark speckling less pronounced and more uniform;
subterminal irregular, dark olive, interrupted at the veins, equally
developed in both wings.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 23-25 mm.

Genitalia : Uncus short, stout and terminating in two short, widely
separated lobes; valves broad and short, upper lobe membranous; aedea-
gus short, curved, with a row of small terminal spines.

FEMALE

Similar to cf, but antennae more slender and not ciliated; submar¬
ginal band of hw less pronounced.

Genitalia ; lobes moderate, almost hairless; ductus very short; ostium
provided with two lateral sack-like bodies; bursa cylindrical, armed
internally with numerous short spines.

149

New Lepidoptera from East Africa

Holotype d1 and Allotype 5 : Kalinzu Forest, Ankole, Uganda, XI-1961,
R.H. Carcasson, to be deposited in British Museum (Natural History),
cf Paratypes : 5, same data as above.

1, locality as above, III-1965, J. Scheven.
o Paratypes : 1, same data as Holotype .

3, Fort Portal, Toro, Uganda, HI-1959, R.H. Carcasson.
1, Bwamba, Toro, Uganda, IX-1961, N. Mitton.

Paratypes in the National Museum, Nairobi.

LACERA APICIRUPTA sp. nov. (Figs. 18,57 & 59)

Differs from L. alope Cramer in the more elongated wings, and.
more pronounced emargination of the fw apex; the variegated underside
pattern suggests that L. apicirupta probably adopts the same butterfly
like resting position as L, alope.

MALE

Antennae : filiform, fuscous.

Head : vertex and frons fuscous black, palpi sayal brown.

Thorax and abdomen : clothed in long fuscous hairs tipped with pale
grey; darker below.

Legs : fuscous black, tarsi ringed with cream buff.

Upperside

Forewinq : costa only slightly arched, apex blunt and termen
strongly emarginate from vein 7 to vein 4, and very oblique from 4 to
tornus, so that the transition from the termen to the rather strongly
arched inner margin is not clearly marked; ground colour fuscous,
densely speckled with pale grey scales, producing a general mousy
grey effect; medial fascia dark, faint, angled distad at end of cell;
postmedial better defined, dark, wavy, very sharply angled towards
apex in cellule 6; three small white dots in distal half of costa; a
broad pinkish buff terminal spot from apex to vein 4 enclosing a
strongly crenulated submarginal line of a darker hue; a straight pink¬
ish buff submarginal band from vein 4 to 2, continued to tornus by a
narrow dark line; termen fuscous black from vein 3 to tornus; cilia
pinkish buff from apex to vein 4, fuscous from 4 to tornus.

Hindwinq : margin strongly produced at vein 4, emarginate from 4
to 6; ground colour fuscous, without pale grey scales; a faint dark
postmedial line; a conspicuous, strongly crenulated pinkish buff sub¬
marginal band, wider at costa, almost obsolete at tornus, edged
distally with fuscous; terminal area pinkish buff with four interner-
vular black spots from apex to vein 4, the largest being in 6; termen
fuscous, densely speckled with pale scales from 4 to tornus; cilia
similar to termen, darker at the veins.

Unders ide

Forewinq : fuscous black; pinkish buff apical area reduced, but
standing out in sharp contrast with remainder, marked with a distinct,
oblique blackish cross bar in space 6 and by another in 7; postmedial
clearly visible from vein 6 to inner margin; submarginal band from 4
to tornus clearly visible, but pinkish buff areas almost obsolete;
marginal area from vein 4 to tornus very densely suffused with pale
grey, somewhat silvery.

Hindwinq : basal area fuscous black; remainder strongly suffused
with grey, particularly near margin; antemedial irregular, narrow and

150

J.E.Afr.Nat.Hist.Soc.

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

blackish; a long, narrow irregular black stigma at end of cell, sur¬
rounded by a conspicuous pale rectangular area; postmedial black,
narrow and iregular, but complete; subterminal buffish, strongly cren-
ulated, complete; a prominent black terminal triangle in space 6.
Measurements : fw, base to apex 19 mm.

Genitalia : Uncus long, slender, downcurved; valves rather blunt, with
a central membranous area and a cushion of dense, minute spines near
apex; scaphium terminating in two cushions of spines; aedeagus small
and slender, proximal end shaped like an anvil.

FEMALE

Very similar to cf, but larger.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 24 mm.

Genitalia : lobes elongated; ductus membranous, rather long; bursa
spherical; struts long and flattened.

Holotype d : Kalinzu Forest, Ankole, Uganda, XI-1961, R.H. Carcasson,
to be deposited in the British Museum (Natural History) .

Allotype ^ : data as above, in the National Museum, Nairobi.

ACT I I DAE SPILOSOMINAE

TERACOTQNA LATIFASCIATA sp„ nov. (Figs. 25 & 40)

Allied to Ta submacula Walker, but differs in having the fw bands
broader and darker and the hw uniformly ochraceous buff.

MALE

Antennae : blackish.

Head : vertex and frons pale ochraceous buff, palpi black.

Thorax : pale ochraceous buff with a darker suffusion on dorsum; a
small black dot at base of each wing and a larger one in centre of
each patagium; ventral surface browr. anteriorly, shading to pale pink¬
ish buff.

Abdomen : base covered by long ochraceous buff hairs; remainder of
dorsal surface more yellowish, with a black transverse band on each
tergite and a series of black lateral dots on each side; ventral
surface paler, without black spots.

Legs : femora and tibiae pale ochraceous buff externally, coral red
internally, with a black distal ring; tarsi black.

Uppers ide

Forewing : ground colour pale ochraceous buff irrorated with
clove brown; aritemedial irregular and indistinct, clove brown; medial
fascia clove brown, irregualr and very broad, except at costa; post-
medial clove brown, broad, but irregular, usually strangulated in the
middle; a small dark stigma at end of cell and a clove brown spot
near outer margin from middle of space 2 to middle of 4; cilia pale
ochraceous buff mixed with clove brown.

Hindwing : Uniformly ochraceous buff, more yellowish in some
specimens; a black dot always present at end of cell; sometimes two
extra black spots near tornus.

Unders ide

Forewing : cinnamon buff, a distinct black spot at end of cell;
costa and apex pale ochraceous buff heavily irrorated with brown.

151

New Lepidoptera of East Africa

Hindwing : cinnamon buff, darker and slightly irrorated with
pinkish at costa.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 18-21 mm.

Genitalia : uncus broad and stout; valves simple, weak, very slender,
shorter than uncus; juxta broad and flat; aedeagus short, straight and
stout .

FEMALE

Unknown .

Holotype c? : Oldeani, Tanganyika, V-1961, J . Kielland, to be deposited
in the British Museum (Natural History),
d" Paratypes ; 1, Oldeani, Tanganyika, 25-IX-1943.

3, Dodoma, Tanganyika, III-1950, N. Mitton.

Paratypes in the National Museum, Nairobi.

LIMACODIDAE

COSUMA RAD I AT A sp. nov. (Figs. 27,38.50 & 58)

Nearest to C. polana Druce, but differs in having narrower, more
elongated wings and a more robust body, particularly in the cf.

MALE

Antennae : black, heavily bipectinate.

Head : frons antimony yellow, palpi blackish with some yellow at base.
Thorax ; tegulae yellow ochre edged with black, forming a black collar;
patagia light buff edged with black; dorsum light buff with a longitu¬
dinal black line; ventral surface mainly antimony yellow with some
blackish laterally.

Abdomen ; yellow ochre above; a sepia brown dorsal crest on first seg¬
ment, some dark hairs on all tergites; ventral surface antimony yellow;
a short black line on each side of each segment, thickening ventrally
to form two black longitudinal bands on either side of ventral surface.
Legs : mainly blackish with some light buff hairs on femora.

Uppers ide

Forewing : ground colour sepia brown; a small light buff spot at
base; a whitish streak below cubitus, near base, and a longer, narrower
and fainter whitish streak in DC; an oblique oval white spot from
below cubitus to middle of inner margin; a second such spot near costa,
beyond cell; a complete series of indistinct pale terminal spots in
internervular spaces and a tendency for the veins to be darker, giving
a rayed effect; cilia sepia.

Hindwing : inner margin and costa yellow ochre; veins sepia,
internervular spaces paler, giving same rayed effect as in fw.

Unders ide

Costa of fw blackish, remainder of both wings antimony yellow,
veins heavily outlined in sepia.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 18-20 mm.

Genitalia : Uncus short and slightly spatulate, with a strong terminal
spine; gnathos a strong, curved, simple spine; valve simple; a broad
plate-like process at base of each valve; juxta very short and broad;
aedeagus long and slender.

152

J. E. Afr .Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

FEMALE

Larger and paler than d.

Antennae : black, shortly serrate.

Head , body and legs : as in d, but dorsal surface of thorax paler
( cartridge buff ) .

Uppers ide

Forewinq : ground colour cartridge buff; veins outlined in sepia,
the two oval spots as in d, but heavily edged with sepia and connected
with one another by a short thick sepia bar; lower oval spot connected
with base by thick sepia bar along la; termen and inner margin narrowly
sepia, cilia sepia.

Hindwing : uniformly antimony yellow; costa narrowly sepia; a
thick, strongly crenulated terminal sepia band; cilia sepia.

Underside

Antimony yellow; a thick strongly crenulated sepia terminal band
in both wings; veins outlined in sepia near apex and tornus of fw; fw
markings faintly visible from upperside.

Measurements : fw, base to apex 26 mm.

Genitalia : lobes reniform, very prominent; ductus membranous, very
long and slender; bursa small, spherical; a cushion of broad scales
below ostium.

Holotype d and Allotype 9 : Ilonga, Kilosa, Tanzania, 1-III-1965,

Mrs. A. Chambers, to be deposited in the British Museum (Natural
History) .

d Paratypes : 2, same data as Holotype,

o Paratypes ; 2, Mikumi (1750 f t . ) , Morogoro district, Tanganyika,
2-III-1963, Mrs. Marsh.

Paratypes in the National Museum, Nairobi.

(Received 15th May, 1965)

New Lepidoptera from East Africa

PLATE

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig .
Fig .
Fig.

PLATE

Fig.
Fig.
Fig .
Fig .
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

PLATE

Fig.

•Fig.

Fig.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

I (Figures slightly enlarged)

1. Pseudathyma neptidina jacksoni d

2. Pseudathyma neptidina jacksoni 9

3. Pseudathyma neptidina neptidina d

4. Najas sarcoptera nipponicorum 9

5. Alaena kiellandi 9 underside

6. Alaena kiellandi 9 upperside

7. Alaena kiellandi d upperside

8. Geodena aurea 9

9. Geodena cinerea d

10. Geodena Candida d

11. Psilocerea melanops d1

12. Xylopteryx prouti 9

13. Blaboplutodes parvistictus d

II (Figures slightly enlarged)

14. Aphilopota fletcheri d

15. Colocleora ankoleensis d

16. Aiteta pulcherrima d

17. Calesia caput-rubrum d

18. Lacera apicirupta 9

19. Diaphone niveiplaga 9

20. Neostichtis fulgurata d

21. Plusia roseof asciata d1

22. Plusi-a euchroides 9

23. Achaea semiflava.9

24. Tolna burdoni 9

25. Teracotona latifasciata d

26. Calesia cryptoleuca 9

III

27. Cosuma radiata d

28. Cosuma radiata 9

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

Genitalia)

Alaena kiellandi 9 x 10
Aleana kiellandi d x 25
Blaboplutodes parvistictus d x 20
Xylopteryx prouti d x 20
Xylopteryx prouti 9 x 20
Psilocerea melanops d x 12
Aphilopota fletcheri d x 10

PLATE

Fig.

36.

Fig .

37.

Fig.

38.

Fig.

39.

Fig .

40.

Fig .

41.

Fig .

42.

PLATE

Fig.

43.

Fig .

44.

Fig.

45.

Fig.

46.

Fig.

47.

Fig.

48.

Fig.

49.

Fig . -

49b.

Fig .

50.

PLATE

Fig .

51.

Fig.

52.

Fig.

53.

Fig .

54.

Fig .

55.

Fig .

56.

Fig.

57.

Fig.

58.

Fig .

59.

Geodena cinerea d x 12
Geodena aurea d x 12

Geodena cinerea o x 10

9x9
x 9

lamellae

Plusia euchroides d x 9
Plusia roseof asciata d x
Plusia euchroides 9x9
Calesia cryptoleuca d x 8
Calesia caput-rubrum d x 8
Plusia roseof asciata
Aiteta pulcherrima d
As above, chitinised
Cosuma radiata d x 8

(Genitalia)

Neostichtis fulgurata d x <
Diaphone niveiplaga 9x6
Achaea semiflava 9x8
Tolna burdoni 9x9
Calesia cryptoleuca 9x8
Calesia caput-rubrum 9x8
Lacera apicirupta d x 14
Cosuma radiata 9x8
Lacera apicirupta 9x8

x 9

154

NEW EAST AFRICAN LEPIDOPTERA

PLATE I

155

NEW EAST AFRICAN LEPIDOPTERA

f ,'jy - jjy

PLATE II

166

NEW EAST AFRICAN LEPIDOPTERA

PLATE III

157

NEW EAST AFRICAN LEPIDOPTERA

PLATE IV

158

NEW EAST AFRICAN LEPIDOPTERA

$98 '

PLATE V

159

NEW EAST AFRICAN LEPIDOPTERA

PLATE VI

160

■*

J.E.Afr.Nat.Hist.Soc.

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

NATURE NOTES

A Dormouse Living in a Beehive

On the 11th Sept. 1964, while collecting in the region of the
Peninj River, West Lake Natron, I had occasion to be up on the plateau
above the escarpment bordering the lake watching a Sonja tribesman
raiding one of his beehives. The raid was a disappointment - for the
owner, that is - because the hive was heavily infested with wax - moth,
Galleria mellonella Linnaeus. Amid angry bees the man removed hand¬
ful after handful of the caterpillar’s silk mixed with bits of broken
comb and at last brought out, to my surprise, a dormouse, Graphiurus
murinus (Desmarest).

The dormouse itself was an amazing sight, being quite incredibly
fat. I later measured a layer of subcutaneous fat in the lower abdo¬
men and found it to be 8 mm deep, besides which there was a large
volume of fat surrounding the viscera. The stomach contained a brown
sludge with fine white specks in it - presumably honey and wax. The
measurements of this animal (C.M.C.6962. Preserved in spirit at the
National Museum) are:- HB 96 mm; T1 64 mm; HF 15.5 mm s.uc; Ear 15 mm;
Wt. 40.5 gm. Adult g. measured when fresh.

On questioning the man, he told me that Galleria and Graphiurus
invariably occur together in infected hives and that the Sonja, many
of whom live entirely by bee-keeping, blame the dormouse for bringing
the moths. Their very robustly built beehives have two entrances;
one very small one for the bees, and one large enough for the honey
collector to insert his arm and remove the comb. The latter hole is
left tightly bunged with brushwood, and it is by making a hole
through this bung that the dormouse enters the hive. The animal
collects dry grass from beneath the tree and carries it into the hive
to make a nest, and the caterpillars, I was told, are brought up from
the ground together with the grass.

Galleria mellonella caterpillars live only on honeycomb so the
Sonja’s explanation of the joint occurrence is unacceptable. One
wonders, however, whether there is a true association between the
presence of Galleria and of Graphiurus in these hives and, if so,
what is the nature of this association. Could it be that the making
of a relatively large hole into the hive through the bung leaves a
convenient, unguarded, entrance for the moth?

A. Duff-Mackay. 2/4/65

‘

Nature Notes

First Record of Snake from Uganda
Rhamphiophis acutus acutus (Gunther)

= Psammophis acutus Gunther, Ann. Mag, Nat. Hist. 1888. (6) 1, p.327.

Rhamphiophis acutus Boulenger, 1896, Cat. Snakes Brit.Mus. 3, p.148,

1915.

Two specimens of the above were taken at Murchison Falls by Mrs.J.
Stoneman, and presented to the Nairobi Snake Park for the National
Museum collection of Repriles. These snakes do not appear to have been
recorded before from Uganda. Their range was believed to be southern
Tanzania, west throuqh Zambia to Angola, northeast through the Congo
to Ruanda and Burundi.

The details of the two

Mid body scale rows.

Sub caudals (paired)

Ventrals

Anal

Length, total
Length of tail
Sex

specimens are as follows:
A B

183

185

Divided

630 mm

675 mm

115 mm

125 mm

These snakes bear a strong resemblance to Psammophylax tritaeni-
atus (Loveridge), but can be distinguished at once by the acutely
pointed nose.

May we take this opportunity to remind the public that we are
interested in any reptile specimens that they can produce for us.

Loveridge, A. 1957. Checklist of reptiles and amphibians of
East Africa. Bull .Mus . Comp. Zoo 1 .Harv. Vol. 117, No. 2. p.277.

J.O.P. Ashe. 16/5/65

A Count of Crowned Cranes (Balearica requlorum (Bennett))

in the Kisii district, Kenya.

Kisii district is 757 square miles in area with an average popula¬
tion of 684 per square mile. The land lies between 4,800 and 6,200 ft.
above sea level with a very evenly distributed rainfall varying from an
average of about 50” per annum at the lower levels to 90" per annum in
the highlands. There are many extensive permanent swamps, especially
in Kitutu location.

In March 1963 the district Agricultural staff were asked, in the
course of their work, to count the Crowned Cranes in their areas. The
following record was made.

162

J. E.Af r .Nat .Hist .Soc .

Vol.XXV No. 2 (111) June 1965

Location

No of cranes

Cranes per sq. mile

N. Mugirango

Kitutu

Nyaribari

Bassi

Majoge

S. Mugirango
Wanj are

288

383

138

2.00

0.34

0.68

1.50

0,57

0.15

Total

863

Mean 1.14

There was probably little liaison between the persons doing the
count and no account was taken of movement of birds over location
boundaries or across the district boundary. The count does show a
total population of over 800 cranes in 757 square miles with a human
population density of over 650 to the square mile. As was to be
expected, the highest crane densities were found in the locations
with the largest areas of permanent swamp.

VoE.M. Burke. 17/5/65

SOME ADDITIONAL FIELD NOTES ON VIPERA HINDU Boulenger
RECEIVED FROM C.J.P. IONIDES ON 15th November 1964

In early November 1964, in a few days, Ionides collected forty-
four Vipera hindii at an altitude of about 10,000 ft on the Aberdares ,
which seems to be a further indication that this snake is not uncommon,
though only likely to be found plentifully by those who know g_ts
habits .

In a patch of grass not more than about 4 ft across he saw eight
of these little vipers, seven of which were collected and proved to
be d1 d*.

An example of the Variable Skink, Mabuya varia varia (Peters) was
found in the stomack of a V. hindii.

An Augur Buzzard, Buteo rufofuscus augur (Rupp.) was observed by
Ionides at this high altitude to rise from the ground with a small
snake - which could only have been V. hindii as no other snakes are
recorded from this locality - in its talons.

( C.R.S . Pitman .)

163

BOOK REVIEW

"The Birds of Prey of the World"

Mary Louise Grossman and John Hamlet

Cassell 1965.

This large and handsomely presented volume is really an attempt at
several books in one. Perhaps because of this it falls between several
stools. The text is in two parts, the first a general review of birds
of prey, with chapters on prehistory and evolution, legends and myths,
including some history of falconry, ecology and habits, specialised
adaptations for survival, and conservation. Though there is much good
and interesting information in these chapters they cannot possibly be
comprehensive in the space allowed, and some, notably that on habits
and ecology would have been greatly improved by subheadings enabling
the reader to separate e.g. migration from breeding behaviour. It is
impossible, in fact, to compress the habits of all birds of prey
including owls into one such chapter, and the information is conse¬
quently very general on any aspect of behaviour. The best of these
preliminary chapters is that on anatomical adaptations for survival.

The second half of the book purports to be an Atlas and Field Guide
and a "highly detailed reference supplement". It will be judged by
East African ornithologists on its usefulness to them. As a field
guide it is quite useless - the book weighs seven pounds and is of a
bulk requiring a desk to study comfortably. The information in this
section is presented by genera and not by species, and while this means
fairly full treatment for monotypic or very small genera such as
Stephanoaetus , Poliohierax , or Scotopelia it also means that if one
wants to learn about Buteo rufofuscus, Accipiter tachiro or Falco
biarmicus it is necessary to go through many pages to extract a few
fragments of information which are then not as comprehensive as that
available in other works.

This section is profusely illustrated with small maps and underwing
patterns. The maps are frequently wrong - for instance neither Falco
alopex nor Glaucidium perlatum occur throughout most of the Guinea
Forests. However, this is a common fault of such maps, which are
usually on a scale inadequate to show the full details of range. The
underwing patterns of hawks are often misleading and inaccurate, for
instance those of the Bateleur, Ayres and African Hawk Eagles, Tawny
and Wahlberg's eagles to name a few. There is, unfortunately, no
substitute for long field experience in such matters, while one also
wants to be able to compare e.g. Wahlberg’s Eagle with other species
with which it might be confused in a region, and not with its nearest
relatives alone, as the generic treatment dictates.

The photographs of birds of prey in action are the strong point of
the book, and some of the sequences are magnificent. Most of them
have been obtained with captive birds, but could not have been obtained
in any other way. Of particular interest are some showing the use of
the beak or other specialised structures in consuming prey. However,

164

Book Review

even among these there are some in which the colour is distorted - the
Black-shouldered Kite for instance is not purple - and some of the
photographs obtained of wild birds are undistinguished.

This is a book that specialists may like to have on their shelves,
even though the information it contains is not comprehensive and
despite a very great waste of space - often fifty percent and in one
case the whole of a page. However ordinary ornithologists will find'
the information for any particular country more readily available in
other works. It would actually be impossible for the authors to have
fulfilled their aim of producing a definitive work on all birds of
prey without far greater compression than is here shown.

L.H.B.

16b

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